Spatial Hierarchy of Climate Injustice
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.912.13648Keywords:
Climate Injustice, Spatial Climate Injustice Hierarchy, Global Climate Injustice Hierarchy, Regional Climate Injustice Hierarchy, Local Climate Injustice Hierarchy.Abstract
Background: Climate justice has emerged as an organising frame in the attempt at addressing the challenge of climate change. The principle that there should be no disproportionality in the burden of climate change, which underlies climate justice, is widely accepted. Be that as it may, climate justice analysis is usually based on an assumption that the global climate system is the norm. This article, based on facts and figures, makes the case for a spatial hierarchical organization of climate justice analysis. Methods: Data from four sources are used. These are published researches, position papers by climate change related organizations, statistical bulletins/abstracts of relevant organizations, and field observations/field records. A descriptive approach is the basic information/data analysis method from which conclusions are derived. Results and Discussion: Three spatial tiers of climate change and associated climate injustice (global, regional, and local) are identified, characterized and analyzed. The global one, which is the usual one discussed by extant works, though couched in terms of anthropogenic climate change, has a natural dimension. In contradistinction, the regional and the local ones are purely anthropogenic. The regional component examined is regional transborder pollution and the associated challenge of acid precipitation. Gas flaring in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria and the associated challenges form the basis of the local dimension. Conclusion: Climate (in)justice cannot be analyzed simply from the perspective of the global climate system. A spatial hierarchical organization is possible. Such a framework could be employed in other cases beyond the examples used here.
References
Moellendorf, D. (2012) Climate Change and Global Justice. WIRES Climate Change 3: 131-143.
Hall, M.J. (2014) Advancing Climate Justice and the Right to Health Through Procedural Rights. Health and Human Rights Journal 16: 8-18.
Rhodes, E. (2015) A Review of Climate Justice: Vulnerability and Protection By Henry Shue. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 22: Article 13.
Pottier, A. et. al. (2017) A Survey of Global Climate Justice: From Negotiation Stances to Moral Stakes and Back. International Review of Environmental and Resource Economics 11: 1-53.
Porter, L. et. al. (2020) Climate Justice in a Climate Changed World. Planning Theory and Practice 21: 293-
Schlosbery, D. & Collins, L.B. (2014) From Environmental to Climate Justice: Climate Change and the Discourse of Justice. WIRES Climate Change doi: 10.1002/wcc.275.
Chatterton, P.; Featherstone, D. & Routledge, P. (2013) Articulating Climate Justice in Copenhagen: Antagonism, the Commons, and Solidarity. Antipode 45: 602-620. 361
People’s Movements (2004) Climate Justice Now!: The Durban Declaration on Carbon Trading. Durban, South Africa.
Mary Robinson Foundation (2013) Declaration on Climate Justice. Mary Robinson Foundation.
Commonwealth Forum of National Human Rights Institutions (2015) St. Julian’s Declaration on Climate Justice. St. Julian, Malta.
Anglican Consultative Council and Anglican Communion Environmental Network (2015) The World is Our Host: A Call to Urgent Action for Climate Justice. Volmoed Conference and Retreat Centre, South Africa.
Civil Society Groups (2017) Declaration on Climate Induced Displacement. Suva, Fiji.
First Peoples and Indigenous Peoples (2018) First Peoples and Indigenous Peoples Declaration. Girdwood, Alaska.
United Nations (2015) Paris Agreement. Paris.
Boom, K.; Richards, J. & Leonard, S. (2016) Climate Justice: The International Momentum Towards Climate Litigation. Heinrich Boell Foundation.
Streck, C.; Keenlyside, P. & Unger (2016) The Paris Agreement: A New Beginning. Journal for European Environmental & Planning Law 13: 3-29.
Lahn, B. (2018) In the Light of Equity and Science: Scientific Expertise and Climate Justice After Paris. International Environmental Agreement 18: 29-43.
Royal Irish Academy (2011) The Geography of Climate Justice. EPA, RIA & Mary Robinson Foundation.
Beer, C.T. (2014) Climate Justice, the Global South and Policy Preferences of Kenyan Environmental NGOs. Lake Forest College Sociology and Anthropology Faculty Publications.
Veron, S. et. al. (2019) Vulnerability to Climate Change of Islands Worldwide and Its Impact on the Tree of Life. Scientific Reports 9: 14471.
Salem, S. (2020) Climate Change and the Sinking Island States in the Pacific. https://www.eir.info/2020/01/09/climate-change
Douglass, K. & Cooper, J. (2020) Archaeology, Environmental Justice, and Climate Change on Islands of the Caribbean and Southwestern Indian Ocean. PNAS 117: 8254-8262.
Williams, S.J. (2013) Sea-Level Rise Implications for Coastal Regions. Journal of Coastal Research 63: 184-
Gutierrez, K.S. & LePrevost, C.E. (2016) Climate Justice in Rural Southeastern United States: A Review of Climate Change Impacts and Effects on Human Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13: 189.
Kulp, S.A. & Strauss, B.H. (2019) New Elevation Data Triple Estimates of Global Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding. Nature Communications 10: 4844.
Zhang, Y. et. al. (2021) Coastal Vulnerability to Climate Change in China’s Bohai Economic Rim. Environment International 147: 106359.
Terry, G. (2009) Climate Change and Gender Justice. Practical Action Publishing Ltd.
Perkins, P.E. (2014) Climate Justice and Gender Justice: Building Women’s Political Agency in Times of rd Climate Change, 23 Conference of the International Association for Feminist Economics.
Bonewit, A. (2015) The Gender Dimension of Climate Justice. European Union Brussels.
Davis, A.; Roper, L. & Miniszewski, U. (2015) Climate Justice and Women’s Rights. Global Green-grants Fund.
Godfrey, P.C. (2012) Introduction: Race, Gender and Class and Climate Change. Race, Gender and Class 19:
Ahuja, N. (2016) Race, Human, Security and the Climate Refugee. English Language Notes 54: 25-32. 362
Tuana, N. (2019) Climate Apartheid. The Forgetting of Race in the Anthropocene. Critical Philosophy of Race 7: 1-33.
Gonzalez, C.G. (2020) Racial Capitalism, Climate Justice and Climate Displacement. Onati Socio-Legal Series Symposium on Climate Justice in the Anthropocene.
Harlan, S.L. (2015) Climate Justice and Inequality, in Dunlap, R.E. & Brulle, R.J. (eds.) Climate Change and Society: Sociological Perspectives, Oxford University Press.
Wilder, M. et. al. (2016) Southwest Climate Gap: Poverty and Environmental Justice in the US Southwest. Local Environment 21: 1332-1353.
Islam, S.N. & Winkel, J. (2017) Climate Change and Social Inequality. Department of Economic & Social Affairs, Working Paper No.152.
Stillings, Z.L. (2014) Human Rights and the New Reality of Climate Change: Adaptation’s Limitations in Achieving Climate Justice. Michigan Journal of International Law, 35: 637.
Elliot, D. & Cook, L.F. (2016) Climate Justice and the Use of Human Rights Law in Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Geneva Quaker United Nations Office.
Savaresi, A. (2016) Climate Change, Justice and Human Rights: Where to Next? Carbon and Climate Law Review 10: 226-230.
Weston, B.H. (2018) Climate Change and Intergenerational Justice: Fundational Reflections. Vermont Journal of Environmental Law 9: 375-430.
Skillington, T. (2019) Climate Change and Intergenerational Justice. Routledge, London.
Aseeva, A. (2019) Intergenerational Climate Justice, in Cottier, T. et. al. (eds.) Intergenerational Equity: Environmental and Cultural Concerns, Leiden/Boston, 115-138.
Houghton, J.T. et. al. (eds.) (1996) Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Masson-Delmotte, V. et. al. (eds.) (2020) Climate Change and Land: An IPCC Special Report (Revised), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Le Houerou, H.N. (1996) Climate Change, Drought and Desertification. Journal of Arid Environments, 34:
Grainger, A. et. al. (2000) Desertification and Climate Change: The Case for Greater Convergence. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 5: 361-377. 2
Burrell, A.L.; Evans, J.P. & De Kauwe (2020) Anthopogenic Climate Change Has Driven Over 5 Million km of Drylands Towards Desertification. Nature Communications 11: 3853.
Palomo, I. (2017) Climate Change Impact on Ecosystem Services in High Mountain Areas: A Literature Review. Mountain Research and Development. 37: 172-187.
Bhattarai, U. (2017) Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Direction for Future Research, Journal of Water, Energy and Environment 20: 41-48.
Kurukulasuriya, P. & Resenthal, S. (2003) Climate Change and Agriculture: A Review of Impacts and Adaptations. World Bank Environment Department.
Gornall, J. et. al. (2010) Implications of Climate Change for Agricultural Productivity in the Early Twenty-First Century. Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society B 365: 2973-2989.
Arora, N.K. (2019) Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture Production and Its Sustainable Solutions. Environmental Sustainability 2: 95-96.
Senevirathe, S.I. et. al. (2012) Changes in Climate Extremes and their Impacts on the Natural Physical Environment, in Field, C.B. (eds.) Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation, IPCC Special Report. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 109-230. 363
Ornes, S. (2018) How Does Climate Change Influence Extreme Weather? Impact Attribution Research Seeks Answers. PNAS 115: 8232-8235.
Reed, K.A. et. al. (2020) Forecasted Attribution of the Human Influence on Hurricane Florence. Science Advances 6: eaaw.
Perkins-Kirkpatrick, S.E. & Lewis, S.C. (2020) Increasing Trends in Regional Heatwaves. Nature Communications 11: 3357.
Nicholls, R.J. et. al. (2007) Coastal Systems and Low-lying Areas. In Parry, M.L. (eds.) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. IPCC Assessment Report, 315-356.
Dasgupta, S. & Meisher, C. (2009) Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: A Review of the Scientific Evidence, World Bank Environment Department.
Nauels, A. et. al. (2019) Attributing Long-Term Sea-Level Rise to Paris Agreement Emission Pledges. PNAS 116: 23487-23492
Leatherman, S.P. & Beller-Simms, N. (1997) Sea-Level Rise and Small Island States: An Overview. Journal of Coastal Research 24: 1-16.
Mimura, N. (1999) Vulnerability of Island Countries in the South Pacific to Sea-Level Rise and Climate Change. Climate Research. 12: 137-143.
Nurse, L.A. et. al. (2014) Small Islands, in Barros, V.R. (eds.) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, IPCC, 1613-1654.
Storlazzi, C.D.; Elias, E.P.L. & Berkowitz, P. (2015) Many Atolls May be Uninhabitable Within Decades Due to Climate Change, Scientific Reports 5: 14546.
Allen, E. (2018) Climate Change and Disappearing Island States: Pursuing Remedial Territory. Brill Open Law 2018: 1-23.
Mcleod, E. et. al. (2019) Lessons from the Pacific Islands - Adapting to Climate Change by Supporting Social and Ecological Resilience Social and Ecological Resilience. Frontiers in Marine Science. http://doi.org//10.3389
McMichael, A.J. et. al. (eds.) (2003) Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses. WHO, Geneva.
Patz, J.A. & Thomson, M.C. (2018) Climate Change and Health: Moving from Theory to Practice. PLOS Medicine 15: e1002628.
Parise, I. (2018) A Brief Review of Global Climate Change and the Public Health Consequences. Australian Journal of General Practice 47: 451-456.
Butler, C.D. (2018) Climate Change, Health and Existential Risk to Civilization: A Comprehensive Review (1989-2013) International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15: 2266.
Roof, K. & Wainwright, T. (2020) Linking Health Justice, Social Justice and Climate Justice. Lancet Planetary Health 4: e131-132.
Liu, Z. et. al. (2019) A Bibliometric Analysis of Research on Acid Rain. Sustainability 11: 3077.
Franklin, C.A. et. al. (1985) Health Risks from Acid Rain: A Canadian Perspective. Environmental Health Perspectives 68: 155-168.
Walker, P.M. (1987) The Problem of Acid Rain: Is the Protection of Private Property Rights the Solution? Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics of Public Policy 2: 269-296. 364
Bergin, M.S. (2005) Regional Atmospheric Pollution and Transboundary Air Quality Management. Annual Review of Environmental Resources 30: 1-37.
Sivaramanan, S. (2015) Acid Rain, Causes, Effects and Control Strategies. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1321.4240/1
Fatima, F. et. al. (2021) A Review on Acid Rain: An Environmental Threat. Pure and Applied Biology 10:
Hall, N.D. (2007) Transboundary Pollution: Harmonizing International and Domestic Law, University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform 40: 681-746.
Chen, Q. & Taylor, D. (2018) Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution in Southeast Asia: Current Methods, Limitations and Future Developments. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1080
Wright, R.F.; Dale, T. & Muniz, I.P. (1976) Impact of Acid Precipitation on Freshwater Ecosystems in Norway. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 4: 483-499.
Moldan, F.; Cosby, B.J. & Wright, R.F. (2013) Modeling Past and Future Acidification of Swedish Lakes. Ambio 42: 577-586.
Haradhan, M. (2018) Acid Rain is a Local Environment Pollution But Global Concern. Open Science Journal of Analytical Chemistry 3: 47-55.
Carey, M.L. (1987) Forest Decline and Acid Rain - Some Facts and Fallacies. Irish Forestry 44: 7-17.
Kolar, T. et. al. (2015) Pollution Control Enchanced Spruce Growth in the “Black Triangle” Near the Czech-Polish Border. Science of the Total Environment 538: 703-711.
Beamish, R.J. (1976) Acidification of Lakes in Canada by Acid Precipitation and Resulting Effects on Fishes. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 6: 501-514.
Driscoll, C.T. et. al. (2001) Acid Deposition in the Northeastern United States: Sources and Inputs, Ecosystem Effects, and Management Strategies. Bio-Science 51: 180-198.
Baum, E. (2001) Unfinished Business: Why the Acid Rain Problem is Not Solved. Boston: Clean Air Task Force.
Schindler, D.W. et. al. (2006) A Review of Anthropogenic Sources of Nitrogen and Their Effects on Canadian Aquatic Ecosystems. Biogeochemistry 79: 25-44.
Bhatti, N.; Streets, D.G. & Foell, W.K. (1992) Acid Rain in Asia. Environmental Management 16: 541-562.
Larssen, T. et. al. (2006) Acid Rain in China. Environmental Science and Technology. January: 418-425.
Yim, S.H.L. et. al. (2019) Air Quality and Acid Deposition Impacts of Local Emissions and Transboundary Air Pollution in Japan and South Korea. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 19: 13309-13323
Zhang, Y. et. al. (2017) Estimates of Economic Loss of Materials Caused by Acid Deposition in China. Sustainability 9: 488.
Rosencranz, A. (1981) The International Law and Politics of Acid Rain. Denver Journal of International Law and Politics 10: 511-521.
Rosencranz, A. (1982) The Law and Politics of Transboundary Air Pollution: The European Experience. Canada-United States Law Journal 5: 102-108.
Regens, J.L. & Rycroft, R.W. (1986) Options for Financing Acid Rain Controls. Natural Resources Journal 26: 519-549.
Cortese, A.D. (1986) Acid Rain Control: The Policy Dilemma. Journal of Environmental Health 49: 90-95.
Ellis, J.H. (1988) Acid Rain Control Strategies. Environmental Science & Technology 22: 1248-1255.
Grennfelt, P. et. al. (2020) Acid Rain and Air Pollutions 50 Years of Progress in Environmental Science and Policy. Ambio 49: 849-864. URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.912.13648 365
Likens, G.E. (2021) Ambio’s Legacy in Monitoring Impact and Management of Acid Rain. Ambio 50: 278-
Voelkel, J. et. al. (2018) Assessing Vulnerability to Urban Heat: A Study of Disproportionate Heat Exposure and Access to Refuge by Socio-demographic Status in Portland, Oregon. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15: 640.
Saverino, K.C. et. al. (2021) Thermal Inequity in Richmond, VA: The Effect of an Unjust Evolution of the Urban Landscape on Urban Heat Islands. Sustainability 13: 1511.
World Bank (1995) Defining an Environmental Development Strategy for the Niger Delta. Lagos: World Bank West Central Africa Department.
American Association for the Advancement of Science (2015) Eyes on Nigeria’s Gas Flaring, www.aaas.org.resources.gas flare.
Odjugo, P.A.O. & Osemwenkhae, E.J. (2009) Natural Gas Flaring Affects Microclimate and Reduces Maize (Zea Mays) Yield. International Journal of Agriculture & Biology 11: 408-412.
Abdulkareem, A.S. et. al. (2012) Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria. http://dx.doi.org
Anomohanran, O. (2012) Thermal Effect of Gas Flaring at Ebedei Area of Delta State, Nigeria. Pacific Journal of Science and Technology 13: 555-560.
Giwa, S.O. et. al. (2019) Gas Flaring Attendant Impacts of Criteria and Particulative Pollutants: A Case of Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Journal of King Saud University-Engineering Sciences 31: 209-217.
Obi, E.O. & Osang, J.E. (2015) Thermal Effect of Gas Flaring Activities in Ogba-Egbema-Ndoni Community, Rivers State, Nigeria. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Research 3: 1-11.
Nduka, J.K.C. et. al. (2008) Acid Rain Phenomenon in Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: Economic, Biodiversity, and Public Health Concern. Scientific World Journal 8: 811-818.
Ekpoh, I.J. & Obia, A.E. (2010) The Role of Gas Flaring in the Rapid Corrosion of Zinc Roofs in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Environmental Systems and Decisions 30: 347-352.
Efe, S.I. & Mogborukor, J.O. (2012) Acid Rain in Niger Delta Region: Implication on Water Resources Quality and Crisis. International Journal of Science and Technology 1: 17-46.
Onu, P.U.; Quan, X. & Ling, X. (2014) Acid Rain: An Analysis of the Cause, Impacts and Abatement Measures, Niger Delta Perspective, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 5: http://www.ijser.org
Amadi, A.N. (2014) Impact of Gas Flaring on the Quality of Rain Water, Groundwater and Surface Water in Parts of Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Geosciences and Geomatics 2: 114-119.
Mohammed, T.I.; Nwankwo, I.C. & Olugbade, T.O. (2016) Determination of the Effect of Oil Exploration on Galvanized Steel in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Scientific Research & Reports 10: 1-9.
Seiyaboh, E.I. & Izah, S.C. (2017) A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetations and Water Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment 2: 48-55.
Isichei, A.O. & Sanford, W.W. (1976) The Effect of Waste Gas Flares Southeastern Nigeria. Journal of Applied Ecology. 14: 177-187.
Abua, M.A. & Ashua, S.W. (2015) The Impact of Gas Flaring on Plant Diversity in Ibeno Local Government Area. Journal of Agriculture and Ecology Research International 4: 10-17.
Bakpo, M.T. & Emejuru, S.A. (2019) Gas Flaring and Biodiversity Depletion in Nigeria: A Study of Selected Gas Flare Sites in Rivers State. Journal of Environmental Science Current Research 2: 011.
Atuma, M.I. & Ojeh, V.N. (2013) Effect of Gas Flaring on Soil and Cassava Productivity in Ebedei, Ukwuani Local Government Area, Delta State, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Protection 4: 1054-1066. 366
Ukoima, H.N. et. al. (2016) Changes in Fungal Population and Soil Physico-Chemical Properties Following Gas Flare in Oloma Community, Bonny Local Government Area. International Journal of Agriculture and Earth Science 2i www.iiardpub.org
Akachukwu, D. et. al. (2018) Biochar Remediation Improves the Leaf Mineral Composition of Telfairia Occidentalis Growth on Gas Flared Soil. Plants 7: 57.
Ejiogu, C.C. et. al. (2019) Assessment on the Impact of Gas Flaring on the Physico-Chemical Qualities of Garden Soils in Bonny Island. International Journal of Advanced Academic Research 5: 43-55.
Gobo, A.E.; Richard, G. & Ubong, I.U. (2009) Health Impact of Gas Flares on Igwuruta/Umuechem Communities in Rivers State. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management 13: 27-33.
Adienbo, O.M. & Nwafor, A. (2010) Effect of Prolong Exposure to Gas Flaring on Some Haematological Parameters of Humans in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management 14: 13-15.
Osuoha, C.A. & Fakutiju, M.A. (2017) Gas Flaring in Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: Cost, Ecological and Human Health Implications. Environmental Management and Sustainable Development 6: 390-410.
Maduka, O. & Tobin-West, C. (2017) Is Living in a Gas-Flaring Community Associated with Being Hypertensive? Evidence from the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. BMJ Global Health 2: e000413.
Ovuakporaye, S.I. et. al. (2019) A Comparative Study on Cardio-Pulminary Markers in Gas Flaring Communities, South-South Nigeria. Journal of Pulminary of Respiratory Medicine 9: 486.
Abia, K.C. et. al. (2019) Alteration of Haematological and Renal Function Parameters of Men Native to Ebocha, Niger Delta, Nigeria Due to Chronic Exposure to Gas Flaring. International Research Journal of Public and Environmental Health 4: 59-71.
Mokelu, I.P. et. al. (2020) Effect of Chronic Exposure to Gas Flaring on Sex Hormones and Some Antioxidant Parameters of Men from Ebocha, Niger Delta Area of Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Reports in Gynaecology 3: 9-19.
Ikporukpo, C.O. (2004) Petroleum, Fiscal Federalism and Environmental Justice in Nigeria. Space and Polity 8: 321-354.
Ako, R.T. (2014) Environmental Justice in Nigeria’s Oil Industry: Recognizing and Embracing Contemporary Legal Developments, in R. Percival; J. Lin & W. Piermattei (eds.) Global Environmental Law at a Crossroads, Edward Elgar, 160-176.
Ojo, G.U. & Tokunbor, N. (2016) Access to Environmental Justice in Nigeria: The Case for a Global Environmental Court of Justice. Friends of the Earth International.
Udoh, I. (2020) Oil Production, Environmental Pressures and Other Sources of Violent Conflict in Nigeria. Review of African Political Economy 47: 199-219.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Chris O. Ikporukpo, Ninane Nina Ikporukpo
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
