Motivation of U.S. High School Students in Learning Chinese
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1012.16098Keywords:
high school, U.S., motivation, learning Chinese, second languageAbstract
This study surveyed 217 American high school students’ motivational factors in learning Chinese and the factors that sustain their learning of this language. In addition, the perceptions of teachers and student focus groups were used to verify, explain and expand the survey findings. Due to the constraint of the space, only quantitative research data and findings are included in this paper. The qualitative research data and findings will be discussed in the future. The findings suggested that the future career prospect connected to China’s economy was one of the most important factors that motivated students to learn Chinese and sustained their motivation. This finding supports the language globalization hypothesis proposed by Dörnyei and Csizer (2002) as such that Chinese is in the process of being changed into a world language due to the growth of China’s economy. In addition, the unique aspect of Chinese language and culture contributes to the challenge of learning Chinese and serves as another important factor to motivate students and sustain their learning. This finding supports self-determination theory (SDT) as learning a challenging subject satisfies learners’ needs for competence. It was found non-Chinese students continued significantly longer in Chinese programs. Heritage is ethnic Chinese students’ most important motivator to learn Chinese and to sustain their learning. The desire to maintain one’s heritage through learning a second language (L2) reflects heritage learners’ need for relatedness to their culture, which is one of human beings’ innate psychological needs according to SDT. More studies on high school students’ motivation for learning Chinese and other less commonly taught languages are needed. This research is intended to provide data for schools in the United States and overseas that are contemplating implementation of a Chinese language program.
References
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261-271. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261
Cai, S. (2011). The impact of an online learning community project on university Chinese as a foreign language students' motivation. (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida). Retrieved from
Chen, Y. (1995). Language learning strategies used by beginning students of Chinese in a semi-immersion setting. (Doctoral dissertation Indiana University). Retrieved from
Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1994). Motivation, self-confidence, and group cohesion in the foreign language classroom. Language Learning, 44(3), 417-448. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-1770. 1994.tb01113.x
Comanaru, R., & Noels, K. A. (2009). Self-determination, motivation, and the learning of Chinese as a heritage language. Canadian Modern Language Review, 66(1), 131-158. doi: 10.3138/cmlr.66.1.131
Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 171-200. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.171
Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc.
Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. W. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the research agenda. Language Learning, 41(4), 469-
Cutshall, S. (2005). Why we need "the year of languages". Educational Leadership, 62(4), 20-23.
Dawson, C., & Dean, J. (2011, Feb 14). Rising china bests, A shrinking Japan. Wall Street Journal, pp. A.1.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1980). Self-determination theory: When mind mediates behavior. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 1(1), 33-43.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268. doi: 10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Self-determination research: Reflections and future directions. Handbook of selfdetermination research. (pp. 431-441) Rochester, NY, US: University of Rochester Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008a). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life's domains. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(1), 14-23. doi: 10.1037/0708-5591.49.1.14
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008b). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182-185. doi: 10.1037/a0012801
Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_6
Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 273-284. doi: 10.2307/330107
Dörnyei, Z. (2000). Motivation. (pp. 425-432) Taylor & Francis Ltd / Books. Dörnyei, Z. (2000). Motivation theories. (pp. 432-435) Taylor & Francis Ltd / Books.
Dörnyei, Z., & Csizér, K. (2002). Some dynamics of language attitudes and motivation: Results of a longitudinal nationwide survey. Applied Linguistics, 23(4), 421-462.
Emma. (2010). The relationship between language and culture. Retrieved from http://www.lexiophiles.com/topic/the-relationship-between-language-and-culture
Ford-Harris, D. Y. (1991). Meeting the psychological needs of gifted black students: A cultural perspective. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69(6), 577-580.
Gardner, R. C. (1968a). Attitudes and motivation: Their role in second-language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly,
Gardner, R. C. (1968b). Attitudes and motivation: Their role in second-language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly,
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation London: Edward Arnold.
Gardner, R. C., Gliksman, L., & Smythe, P. C. (1978). Attitudes and behaviour in second language acquisition: A social psychological interpretation. Canadian Psychological Review/Psychologie Canadienne, 19(3), 173-186. doi: 10.1037/h0081474
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1965a). Language aptitude, intelligence, and second-language achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56(4), 191-199. doi: 10.1037/h0022400
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1965b). Language aptitude, intelligence, and second-language achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56(4), 191-199. doi: 10.1037/h0022400
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1959a). Motivational variables in second-language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie, 13(4), 266-272. doi: 10.1037/h0083787
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1959b). Motivational variables in second-language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie, 13(4), 266-272. doi: 10.1037/h0083787
Gardner, R. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (1993). A student's contribution to second language learning. part II: Affective variables. Language Teaching, 26, 1-11.
Gardner, R. C., & Masgoret, A. (1999). Home background characteristics and second language learning. Journal of Language & Social Psychology, 18(4), 419.
Gardner, R. C., & Tremblay, P. F. (1994a). On motivation, research agendas, and theoretical frameworks. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), pp. 359-368.
Gardner, R. C., & Tremblay, P. F. (1994b). On motivation: Measurement and conceptual considerations. Modern Language Journal, 78(4), 524-527. doi: 10.2307/328591
Gardner, R. C. (2006). The socio-educational model of second language acquisition: A research paradigm. EUROSLA Yearbook, 6, 237-260.
Gunderson, L. (2000). Voices of the teenage diasporas. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 43(8), 692-706.
Gunderson, L. (2007). English-only instruction and immigrant students in secondary schools: A critical examination. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 10 Industrial Avenue, Mahwah, NJ, 07430. Tel: 800-926-6579; Fax: 201-760-3735; e-mail: orders@erlbaum.com; Web site: http://www.erlbaum.com: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Husseinali, G. (2006). Who is studying Arabic and why? A survey of Arabic students' orientations at a major university. Foreign Language Annals, 39(3), 395-412.
Lambert, W. E., Gardner, R. C., Barik, H. C., & Tunstall, K. (1963). Attitudinal and cognitive aspects of intensive study of a second language. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66(4), 358-368. doi: 10.1037/h0047396
Language difficulty ranking. Retrieved from http://www.effectivelanguagelearning.com/languageguide/language-difficulty Lee, J., & Zhou, M. (2004). In Lee J., Zhou M. (Eds.), Asian American youth: Culture, identity, and ethnicity. Great Britain: Routledge.
Liao, L., & Larke, P. J. (2008). The voices of thirteen Chinese and Taiwanese parents sharing views about their children attending Chinese heritage schools access ERIC: FullText. Online Submission; US-China Education Review,
Liu, Y., Wang, M., Perfetti, C. A., Brubaker, B., Wu, S., & MacWhinney, B. (2011).
Learning a tonal language by attedning to the tone: An in vivo experiment. Language Learning, 61(4), 1119-1141. Mitchell, T. R. (1974). Expectancy models of job satisfaction, occupational preference and effort: A theoretical, methodological, and empirical appraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 81(12), 1053-1077. doi: 10.1037/h0037495
Moses, M. S. (2000). Why bilingual education policy is needed: A philosophical response to the critics. Bilingual Research Journal, 24(4), 333.
Nababan, P. W. J. (1974). Language, culture, and language teaching. RELC Journal, 5(2), 18-30.
New Jersey core curriculum content standards for world languages. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.state.nj.us/education/cccs/standards/7/
New Jersey Department of Education. (2011a). New Jersey state report card. New Jersey: New Jersey Department of Education. Retrieved from http://www.ww-p.org/about_us/state_report_card/.
New Jersey Department of Education. (2011b). Report card narratives. New Jersey: New Jersey Department of Education. Retrieved from http://education.state.nj.us/rc/rc10/rcoptions.php?c=21;d=5715;s=020;lt=CD;st=CD.
Noels, K. A. (2003). Learning Spanish as a second language: Learners’ orientations and perceptions of their teachers’ communication style. Language Learning, 53, 97-136. doi: 10.1111/1467-9922.53225
Noels, K. A., Clement, R., & Pelletier, L. G. (2001). Intrinsic, extrinsic, and integrative orientations of French-Canadian learners of English. Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3), 424-442.
Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R. J. (2003). Why are you learning a second language? motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language Learning, 53, 33-64. doi: 10.1111/1467-9922.53223
Noels, K. A., & Pon, G. (1996). Language, identity, and adjustment. Journal of Language & Social Psychology, 15(3),
Phinney, J. S. (1989a). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: A review of research. access ERIC: FullText. Md: National Institute of Health (DHHS).
Phinney, J. S. (1989b). Stages of ethnic identity development in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9(1-2), 34-49.
Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3),
Portes, A., & Hao, L. (1998). E pluribus Unum: Bilingualism and loss of language in the second generation. Sociology of Education, 71(4), 269-294.
Portes, A., & MacLeod, D. (1996). Educational progress of children of immigrants: The roles of class, ethnicity, and school context. Sociology of Education, 69(4), pp. 255-275.
Portes, A., & Zhou, M. (1994). Should immigrants assimilate? Public Interest, (116), 18-33.
Pufahl, I., & Rhodes, N. C. (2011a). Foreign language instruction in U.S. schools: Results of a national survey of elementary and secondary schools. Foreign Language Annals, v44(n2), 258.
Pufahl, I., & Rhodes, N. C. (2011b). Foreign language instruction in U.S. schools: Results of a national survey of elementary and secondary schools. Foreign Language Annals, v44(n2), 258.
Pulvermuller, F., & Schumann, J. H. (1994). Neurobiological mechanisms of language acquisition. Language Learning, 44(4), 681.
Ramage, K. M. (1986). Motivational and attitudinal factors as predictors of persistence in foreign language study (sociopsycological, second language acquisition, affective factors). (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.lib.lehigh.edu/docview/303525353
Rhodes, N. C., & Pufahl, I. (2010). Foreign language teaching in U.S. schools: Results of a national survey.
Washington, D.C: CAL. Roth, G., Assor, A., Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). The emotional and academic consequences of parental conditional regard: Comparing conditional positive regard, conditional negative regard, and autonomy support as parenting practices. Developmental Psychology, 45(4), 1119-1142. doi: 10.1037/a0015272
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic-dialectical perspective. Handbook of self-determination research. (pp. 3-33) Rochester, NY, US: University of Rochester Press.
Schumann, J. H. (1997). The neurobiology of affect in language. Language Learning, A Journal of Research in Language Studies, v48
Schumann, J. H. (1990). Extending the scope of the Acculturation/Pidginization model to include cognition. TESOL Quarterly, 24(4), 667-684.
Schumann, J. H. (2006). Summing up: Some themes in the cognitive neuroscience of second language acquisition. Language Learning, 56, 313-319. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006. 00367.x
Shaaban, K. A., & Ghaith, G. (2000). Student motivation to learn English as a foreign language. Foreign Language Annals, 33(6), 632-644.
Sperandio, J. (1998). Girls' secondary education in contemporary Uganda: Unintended outcomes of well-intentioned policy. (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Chicago). Retrieved from
State board of education adopts new high school graduation requirements. (2004). Retrieved from http://www.state.nj.us/education/news/2004/0107grad.html
Tremblay, P. F., & Gardner, R. C. (1995). Expanding the motivation construct in language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 79(4) 505–518. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4781. 1995.tb05451.x
Tennant, J., & Mihic, L. (2004). Integrative motivation: Changes during a year-long intermediate-level language course. Language Learning, 54(1), 1-34. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004. 00247.x
Urdan, T. C., & Maehr, M. L. (1995). Beyond a two-goal theory of motivation and achievement: A case for social goals. Review of Educational Research, 65(3), 213-243. doi: 10.2307/1170683
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation Oxford, England: Wiley.
Welles, E. B. (2004). Foreign language enrollments in United States institutions of higher education, fall 2002. Profession, pp. 128-153.
Wen, X. (1997). Motivation and language learning with students of Chinese. Foreign Language Annals, 30(2), 235-251. doi: 10.1111/j.1944-9720. 1997.tb02345.x
West Windsor-Plainsboro Board of Education. (2010). WW-P fast facts. New Jersey: West Windsor-Plainsboro Board of Education. Retrieved from. http://www.wwp.org/cms/one.aspx?objectId=4302941&contextId=3592907.
Wigfield, A. (1994). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation: A developmental perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 6(1), 49.
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy--value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68-81. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1015
Wu, W. (2005). The role of form-focused communication activities in complex grammar learning: The case of relative clauses in Chinese. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania). Retrieved from
Wu, W. (2011). About WW-P school district's Chinese program. Unpublished manuscript. Xing, Z. J. (2006). Teaching and learning Chinese as foreign language. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Yang, C. (2011). The acquisition of mandarin prosody by American learners of Chinese as a foreign language (CFL). Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University). Retrieved from
Zhao, H., & Huang, J. (2010). China’s policy of Chinese as a foreign language and the use of overseas Confucius institutes. Educational Research for Policy & Practice, 9(2), 127-142. doi: 10.1007/s10671-009-9078-1 Appendixes
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Suihua Zhao, Yiqiang Wu
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
