Critiques on the Tribunals and The Hague Court
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.77.8636Keywords:
Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunal, Tribunal, International Criminal Court, The Hague Court, Victims, Perpetrators, Critique, Justice and Rome StatuteAbstract
This critique is a review of heinous crimes. It assesses to connect with perpetrators, victims, people and institutions and change professed through the works of the Tribunals and The Hague Court and share the feeling with the concerned ones. The objectives of the paper are three-fold: (1) to study the situations of the investigation, prosecution and punishment on accountability; (2) to analyze the preference for justice: victors’ justice or victims’ justice; and (3) to access the critiques on violations of human rights and humanitarian law beyond the borders. Experiences on Transitional Justice, Human Security, and Human Rights among others feel touched, inspired and motivated to the author for this pioneer paper. This state-of-the-art paper is examined based on archival research, exchanging and sharing way forward with over 100 international publications and lessons-learned centric theoretical approach comprising snow-ball techniques. The study theorizes: (1) Retributive Justice Theory: Punishment is justified as perpetrator deserves for penalty, equivalent vengeance; (2) Utilitarian Justice Theory: Punishment is justified to mid-and-junior level perpetrators scooting-free to the top-most policymakers including Emperor Hirohito. Allied powers believed that Hirohito can only fight against the communism; (3) Denunciation Justice Theory: Punishment is justified by pressure of society that sends a clear message: offence is a heinous crime and sentencing a perpetrator is logically just; (4) Restorative Justice Theory: Punishment is justified as crimes of perpetrators hurt everyone and justice repairs the damage satisfying through accountability, reparation, rehabilitation and reconciliation; and (5) Transnational Justice Theory: Punishment is justified to operate outside a nation territory that penalizes the perpetrators as a crime of international concern. The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals had virtually been victor’s justice with self-righteous fraud and lynching bodies. The Tokyo Tribunal never talks about bombings at Chinese cities. The U.S. and its axis powers discourage future aggressions accepting victor’s justice. The UN failed to restore peace and security. Cronyism was/is widespread. All Tribunals seemed pseudo justice bodies. People criticize these for being one-sided, inefficient, ineffectiveness, politicized, lengthy, very costly and unfair bodies. The U.S. and its satellite nations control both Tribunals and The Hague Court providing funds, instruments and staff. The Hague Court is a highly debated body with many flaws, targeting mostly poor and opponent African countries. Most grave crimes committed go unpunished. Thus, justice delivery appears as a sword in a judge's toupee. If The Hague Court is continuously influenced by powerful non-signatories of Statute, the relevance of its functions are hopeless. Justice becomes elusive for the innocent, weak and poor ones.
References
A/72/349. (2017, September 29). Report of the International Criminal Court: Note by the Secretary-General. New York: UN General Assembly.
Abrahams, Fred. (2001, October). Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo. New York: Human Rights Watch.
African Union backs mass withdrawal from ICC. (2017, February 1). Retrieved May 8, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38826073.
African Union. (2017, January 12). Draft 2: Withdrawal Strategy Document. Addis Ababa.
Agency France Presse. (September 11, 2018). US threatens to arrest and sanction ICC Judges. The Himalayan Times. Kathmandu.
Agenda.Ge. (2019, March 20). Georgian Justice Minister: we’ve presented more than 700 pieces of evidence that Russia started the 2008 war. Tbilisi.
Ahren, Raphael. (2020, April 30). Chief Prosecutor insists ICC has jurisdiction to prove war crimes in Palestine. The Times of Iarael.
Akhavan, Payam. (2004). “Beyond Impunity: Can International Criminal Justice Prevent Future Atrocities”. American Society of International Law 95.
Alam, Julhas. (2020, February 5). “Rohingya Case: International Court Begins Gathering Evidence”. The Diplomat. Washington: Diplomat Media Inc.
Aljazeera. (2015, June 16). African Union chief Mugabe says ICC unwelcome in Africa. Retrieved May 9, 2020, from http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/6/16/mugabe-says-icc-unwelcome-in-africa.html.
Aljazeera. (2019, September 20). Russia, China veto UN resolution calling for ceasefire in Syria. Retrieved January 12, 2020 from https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/russia-china-veto-resolution-calling-truceidlib-190919163754250.html.
AlMadani, Wedyan. (2020, January 24). The fundamental legacy of the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials. NewEurope.
Amann Diane M. & Sellers, M. N. S. (2002 Autumn). “The United States of America and the International Criminal Court”. The American Journal of Comparative Law, Volume 50. 480
Amanpour, Christiane, John King, Jill Dougherty and Walter Rodgers. (May 27, 1999). Milosevic indictment makes history. CNN.Com.
Ambruster, H. W. (1947). Treason's Peace. Beechhurst Press.
Apiko, Philomena & Faten Aggad. (2016, November). The International Criminal Court, Africa and the African Union: What way forward? European Center for Development Policy Management.
Arsanjani, M. H. (1999, January). “Developments in International Criminal Law: The Rome Statute of the ICC”. American Journal of International Law, 93.
Askin, Kelly. (2010, July 16). Imperfect Justice: The Impact of the Yugoslav Tribunal. Open Society Foundations.
Assembly/AU/Dec.569-587(XXV). (2015, June 14-15). Assembly of the Union: Twenty-Fifth Ordinary Session. Johannesburg: African Union.
Assembly/AU/Dec.621- 641(XXVIII). (2017, January 30-31). Decisions, Declarations, Resolution and Motion. Addis Ababa.
Associated Press. (2006, March 19). Milosevic’s daughter calls funeral ceremony ‘scandalous’. NBCNEWS.com.
Baier, Kurt. (1977). “The Strengths and Limits of the Theory of Retributive Punishment”. Philosophic Exchange.
Bailed, Charlotte. (2020, April 22). European cases to test the reach of prosecuting Syria war crimes. Geneva: The New Humanitarian.
Baldwin, Clive. (2020, March 20). UK Bill a Licence for Military Crimes? Human Rights Watch.
Bauer, Y. (1978). The Holocaust in Historical Perspectives. Canberra: Australia National University Press.
BBC. (2004, December 16). Russian to release massacre files. London.
BBC. (2006, March 11). Milosevic found dead in his cell. London.
BBC. (2010, April 28). Russia publishes Katyn massacre archives. London.
BBC. (2014, April 8). ‘I saw armed gang murder my family’. London.
BBC. (2016, November 16). Russia withdraws from International Criminal Court treaty. London.
BBC. (2017, February 1). African Union backs mass withdrawal from ICC. London.
BBC. (2018, December 26). Rwanda genocide: Habyarimana plane shooting probe dropped. London
BBC. (2019, April 5). US revokes visa of International Criminal Court prosecutor. London.
BBC. (2019, April). Rwanda genocide: 100 days of slaughter. London.
Behles, Caitlin. (2019, April 12). ICC Pre-Trial Chamber Rejects Opening an Investigation in Afghanistan. American Society of International Law.
Beigbeder, Y. (1999). Judging War Criminals: The Politics of International Justice. London: Macmillan.
Bentham, Jeremy. (2009). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Dover Publications.
Besheer, Margaret. (2013, October 31). AU Press Kenyatta ICC Deferral Request. Washington: Voice of America.
Bix, Herbert P. (2000). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
Boister, Neil. (2003, November). “Transnational Criminal Law?” European Journal of International Law, 14(5). https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/14.5.953.
Boutellis, Arthur and Paul D. Williams. (2013, April). Peace Operations, the African Union, and the United Nations: Toward More Effective Partnerships. International Peace Institute.
Bowcott, Owen. (2017, December 20). “Yugoslavia tribunal closes, leaving a powerful legacy of war crimes justice”. The Guardian. 481 Pathak, B. (2020). Critiques on the Tribunals and The Hague Court. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(7) 445-491.
Bowcott, Owen. (2019, December 8). “Aung San Suu Kyi heads to The Hague for Myanmar genocide showdown”. The Guardian.
British Government Pays Compensation for Iraq “Torture”. Retrieved May 2, 2020, from https://www.dw.com/en/british-government-pays-compensation-for-iraq-torture/a-3476172.
Brook, Timothy. (2001, August). “The Tokyo Judgment and the Rape of Nanking”. The Journal of Asian Studies.
Bruning, Evan, Jane Rudy, Mara Scallon & Jeremia Whall. (Undated). Examining the ICTY to evaluate criticisms of anti¬Serb bias. Northeastern University.
Burleigh, Michael. (2000). The Third Reich: A New History. New York: Hill and Wang.
Butow, R. J. C. (1954). Japan's Decision to Surrender. Stanford University Press.
C.N.121.2017.Treaties-XVIII.10. (2017, March 7). South Africa: Withdrawal of Notification of Withdrawal. New York: United Nations. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198251583.001.0001.
C.N.121.2017.TREATIES-XVIII.10. (2017, March 7). South Africa: Withdrawal of notification of withdrawal. New York: United Nations.
C.N.138.2018. (2019, March 17). The Philippines: Withdrawal. New York: United Nations.
C.N.786.2016. (2017, October 19). South Africa: Withdrawal. New York: United Nations.
C.N.786.2016.TREATIES-XVIII.10. (2016, October 25). South Africa: Withdrawal. New York: United Nations.
C.N.805.2016. (2018, October 27). Burundi: Withdrawal. New York: United Nations.
C.N.862.2016.Treaties-XVIII.10. (2016, November 11). Gambia Withdrawal. New York: United Nations.
C.N.862.2016.TREATIES-XVIII.10. (2016, November 11). Gambia: Withdrawal. New York: United Nations.
Chapter X: Widespread Incidents of Rape. Retrieved April 25, 2020, from http://museums.cnd.org/njmassacre/njm-tran/njm-ch10.htm.
Chigara, Benedict A. & Chidebe Matthew Nwankwo. (2015, December 8). “‘To be or not to be?’ The African Union and its Member States Parties' Participation as High Contracting States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998)”. Nordic Journal of Human Rights. Volume 33, Issue 3. https://doi.org/10.1080/18918131.2015.1105559.
Clancey, Patrick. (Undated). IMTFE Judgment: English Translation. HyperWar Foundation.
Clapham, A. (2003). “Issues of complexity, complicity and complementarity: From the Nuremberg trials to the dawn of the International Criminal Court”. From Nuremberg to The Hague: the future of international criminal justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
CNN.Com. (2001, March 31). Slobodan Milosevic to Stand Trial in Serbia. Belgrade.
Coalition for the International Criminal Court. (2007, March 26). Yemeni Parliament ratifies Rome Statute. New York.
Coalition for the International Criminal Court. (2017, March 15). South Africa reverses ICC withdrawal: Now make international justice work for all. South Africa/Benin/New York.
Concannon, Brian. (2000). “Beyond Complementarity: The International Criminal Court and National Prosecutions, A View from Haiti”. Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Vol. 32, No. 1.
Crawford, Julia. (2015, December 15). Was the UN’s Rwanda Tribunal Independent? Justiceinfo.net.
Daily Nation. (2013, October 12). President Uhuru hits out at the West over ICC. Addis Ababa.
Dersso, Solomon A. (2013, October 28). The AU’s Extraordinary Summit decisions on Africa-ICC Relationship. Blog of the European Journal of International Law. 482
Douglas, L. (2001). The Memory of Judgment: Making Law and History in the Trials of the Holocaust. New Haven/London: Yale University Press.
Dower, J. W. (2000, June). Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: W.W. Norton.
Doyle, Mark. (2013, October 12). African Union Urges ICC to Defer Kenyatta Uhuru Case. London: BBC.
Dragon Daily, (1938, February 7). A Debt of Blood: An Eyewitness Account of the Barbarous Acts of the Japanese Invaders in Nanjing. Wuhan Edition.
Eagle, William. (2015, December 27). In Retrospect, Rwanda Genocide Tribunal Mostly Hailed. Voice of America. Retrieved April 14, 2020, from https://www.voanews.com/africa/retrospect-rwanda-genocide-tribunalmostly-hailed.
Editorial. (1946, October 5). “The Nuremberg Judgment”. The Economist. London.
Edwards, Steve. (2003, September 17). Del Ponte Says UN Caved to Rwandan Pressure. New York: Global Policy Forum.
Eltringham, Nigel. (2014, April 29). A Legacy Deferred?: The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda at 20 Years. University of Sussex.
Erlanger, Steven and Carlotta Gall. (2001, April 2). “The Milosevic Surrender: The Overview; Milosevic Arrest Came With Pledge for a Fair Trial”. The New York Times.
European Centre for Constitutional and Human Rights. (2019, July 31). War crimes by UK forces in Iraq. Berlin.
Evans, Richard J. (1996). Rituals of Retribution: Capital Punishment in Germany, 1600-1987. Oxford University
EX.CL/ Dec.986-1007(XXXII). (2018, January 25- 26). 32nd Ordinary Session of the Executive Council. Addis Ababa: African Union.
Ext/Assembly/AU/Dec.1-2. (2013, October). Decisions and Declarations. Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://oau-aec-au-documents.uwazi.io/en/document/n75p1t65fv24m8spsr4sa714i?page=2.
Ferstman, Carla. (2014, December 5). ICC’s Prosecutor withdrawal of charges against Kenyatta, a blow to the victims of the post-election violence in Kenya. New York: REDRESS.
Flagpole Magazine. (2002, July 17). The Trial of the Century– and of All Time, part two. Georgia.
Forges, Alison Des. (1999, March 1). Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda. Washington: Human Rights Watch.
France 24. (2012, March 15). From Lubanga to Kony, is the ICC only after Africans? Retrieved May 8, 2020, from https://www.france24.com/en/20120315-lubanga-kony-icc-africans-international-justice-hague-syria-congo.
Fraser, David. (2017, winter). (De)Constructing the Nazi State: Criminal Organizations and the Constitutional Theory of the International Military Tribunal. 39 Loyola. Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review 117.
Gall,Carlotta (2001, July 1). “Serbian Tells of Spiriting Milosevic Away”. The New York Times.
German Instrument of Surrender. (1945, May 8). Act of Military Surrender. Germany.
Global Rights Compliance. (2016, December). Ukraine and the ICC. United Kingdom.
Goldston, James A. (2019, August 8). Don’t Give up the ICC. Retrieved May 3, 2020, from https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/08/dont-give-up-on-the-icc-hague-war-crimes/.
Goodhart, A. L. (1946, April). "The Legality of the Nuremberg Trials". Juridical Review. Scotland.
Gordan, Noah J. (2004, December 31). Why the Palestinians Joined the International Criminal Court: Mahmoud Abbas joined the Hague a day after the Palestinian Authority was denied statehood by the UN’s Security Council. The Atlantic. 483 Pathak, B. (2020). Critiques on the Tribunals and The Hague Court. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(7) 445-491.
Gray, Robert. (1996, February). Japanese Imperialism and the Massacre in Nanjing: Translation from Japanese from English. Vancouver, Canada.
Hannan, Daniel. (2007, February 26). “He Went Unsung to His Grave”. The Daily Telegraph.
Hayner, Priscilla B. (2011). Unspeakable Truths: Transitional Justice and Challenge of Truth Commissions. New York and London: Routledge.
Hazan, Pierre. (2018, January 3). How the ICTY Has Challenged Our World. Justiceinfo and Neuchatel University.
Henkel, M. (2011). Memoriam Nuernberger Prozesse, exhibition catalogue (German), Nuremberg. Museen der Stadt Nuernberg.
Hirsch, Francine. (2020). Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg: A New History of the International Military Tribunal After World War I. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hoare, Marko Attila. (2008, April). Genocide in Bosnia and the failure of international justice. Working Paper Series No. 8. London: Kingston University.
Hodgins, Stefanie. (2015, July 23). Uhuru Kenyatta vs. The International Criminal Court: Narratives of Injustice and Solidarity. University of Ottawa: Graduate School of Public and International Affairs.
Horowitz, Solis. (1950, November). "The Tokyo Trial". International Conciliation, 465. New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Horowitz, Solis. (2013, May 18). "The Tokyo Trial". International Conciliation, No. 465. Literary Licensing.
Hosch, J.A. (Undated). International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE). University of Georgia.
Huff, Richard. (Undated). Transnationalism. Encyclopedia Britannica.
Human Rights Council. (Undated). S-17/1. Situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic. Geneva.
Human Rights Watch. (1998, November 5). Yugoslav Blocks War Crimes Investigation. New York.
Human Rights Watch. (2001, June 19). Belgrade Fails War Crimes Test. New York.
Human Rights Watch. (2014, December 8). ICC: Courts Needs Cooperation, Resources. New York.
Human Rights Watch. (2015, December 23). Rwanda: International Tribunal Closed Its Doors: Governments Should Bring Remaining Genocide Suspects to Justice. Nairobi.
Human Rights Watch. (2016, October 27). Burundi: ICC Withdrawal Major Loss to Victims. Nairobi.
Human Rights Watch. (2019, April 12). ICC: Judges Reject Afghanistan Investigation: Victims Denied Path to Justice; Decision Benefits Obstructionist States. The Hague.
Human Rights Watch. (2020, March 23). Q&A: The International Criminal Court and the United States. Retrieve May 12, 2020, from https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/03/23/qa-international-criminal-court-and-unitedstates.
ICC. (2011). Rome Statute of the International Crime. The Hague.
ICC. (2016, January 27). Statement of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Fatou Bensouda, following judicial authorization to commence an investigation into the Situation in Georgia. The Hague.
ICC. (2017, December 4). Report on Preliminary Examination Activities-2017. The Hague.
ICC. (2019, December 5). Report on Preliminary Examination Activities-2019. The Hague.
ICC. (2019, November 29). Afghanistan: ICC Appeals Chamber will hear oral arguments on 4-6 December 2019. The Hague.
ICC. (2019, September 27). Afghanistan: ICC Appeals Chamber schedules a hearing on 4-6 December 2019 to hear oral arguments. The Hague. 484
ICC. (Undated). The ICC at a Glance. The Hague. Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://www.icccpi.int/Publications/ICCAtAGlanceENG.pdf.
ICC-01/15-4. (2015, October 13). Pre-Trial Chamber I. The Hague: ICC.
ICC-01/18-125. (2020, March 23). Pre-Trial Chamber I. The Hague: ICC.
ICC-01/18-131. (2020, April 30). Situation in the State of Palestine. The Hague: ICC.
ICC-PIDS-TCT-01-090/18_Eng. (2018, June 13). The Court Today. Retrieved September 25, 2018, from https://www.icc-cpi.int/resource-library/Documents/TheCourtTodayEng.pdf.
ICTR: A tribunal that failed Rwandan genocide victims and survivors. Retrieved April 13, 2020, from https://www.dw.com/en/ictr-a-tribunal-that-failed-rwandan-genocide-victims-and-survivors/a-51156220.
ICTY. (November 29, 2017). The ICTY renders its final judgment in the Prlić et al. appeal case. The Hague.
Ilic, Dejan. (2004, April 23). The Yugoslav Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Overcoming Cognative Blocks. Eurozone.
International Criminal Court. (2019, September 17). Afghanistan: ICC Pre-Trial Chamber II authorises Prosecutor to Appeal Decision Refusing Investigation. The Hague.
International Criminal Court. Retrieved April 30, 2020, from (https://asp.icccpi.int/en_menus/asp/states%20parties/.
International Criminal Court. Retrieved May 15, 2020, from https://internationalcriminalcourtnashie.weebly.com/aims-and-objectives.html.
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 1993-2017. Retrieved May 17, 2020, from https://www.icty.org/.
International Military Tribunal for the Far East. (1946, January 19). Special proclamation by the Supreme Commander tor the Allied Powers at Tokyo. Treaties and Other International Acts Series 1589.
Iraq/UK: Preliminary Examination. Retrieved January 10, 2019, from https://www.icc-cpi.int/iraq.
Is a U.N. International Criminal Court in the U.S. National Interest? (1998, July 23). Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-105shrg50976/pdf/CHRG-105shrg50976.pdf
Islam, Mohammad Rabiul. (2016, February 23). The International Criminal Court: Its Success and Limitations for Pursuing International Justice. Journal of Civil and Legal Sciences. Volume 5, Number 180. DOI: 10.4172/2169-0170.1000180.
Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2002, June 30). Israel and the International Court. Jerusalem.
James, Clayton D. (1970, October 1). The Years of MacArthur. Volume 1: 1880-1941.
Japan Institute of International Affairs. (2014, March). Japan’s Territorial Issues and the Historical Understandings of the Concerned Countries: Case Studies on the Senkaku Islands, Takeshima and the Northern Territories. Tokyo.
Jovana, Mihajlović Trbovc & PetrovićVladimir. (2017). The Impact of the ICTY on Democratization in the Yugoslav Successor. Researchgate.net.
Kagire, Edmund (2014, February 1). Genocide against the Tusti: It’s now Officials. The East Africa.
Kaneza, Eloge W. (2016, October 7). Burundi to leave International Criminal Court, official says. Bujumbura: Associated Press.
Kasande, Sarah, Chris Gitari & Mohamed Suma. (2017, February 16). AU Strategy for Collective withdrawal from the ICC a Non-Starter. New York: International Center for Transitional Justice.
Kelley, Kevin J. (2016, January 9). Experts criticise Rwanda genocide tribunal. Daily Nation. 485 Pathak, B. (2020). Critiques on the Tribunals and The Hague Court. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(7) 445-491.
Kelley, Kevin J. (2018, November 23). “Kenya wants an expanded UN Security Council”. Daily Nation. The EastAfrican Nation Media Group.
Kennedy, John Fitzgerald. (1955). Profiles in Courage. Harper & Brothers.
Keppler, Elise. (February 17, 2017). Gambia Rejoins ICC. New York: Human Rights Watch.
Killingsworth, Matt (2019, December 24). Justice, Syria and the International Criminal Court. Australian Institute of International Affairs.
Killingsworth, Matt (2019, March 13). Justice, Syria and the International Criminal Court. Australian Institute of International Affairs.
Kittichaisaree, Kriangsak. (2001, July 12). International Criminal Law. Oxford University Press.
Krauth, Kathleen. (2001). EAA Interview with Herbert P. Bix on Hirohito and the Making of Modern. Retrieved April 24, 2020, from https://www.asianstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/eaa-interview-with-herbert-p-bix-2001-pulitzer-winner.pdf.
Kumar, Hariharan. (January 15, 2015). Retributive Theory of Punishment: A Critical Analysis. Retrieved April 19, 2020, from https://www.lawctopus.com/academike/retributive-theory-of-punishment-a-critical-analysis/
Leithead, Alastair. (2015, December 14). Rwanda genocide: International Criminal Tribunal closes. London: BBC.
Luban, D. (1994). Legal Modernism: Law, Meaning, and Violence. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Maasho, Aaron. (2017, February 1). “African leaders cautiously back strategy to quit global court”. Reuters Africa.
Mak, Timothy D. (2007, November 8). The case against an international war crimes tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Retrieved April 12, 2020, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13533319508413578.
Markovic, Milan. (2005). “In the Interests of Justice: A Critique of the ICTY Trial Court's Decision to Assign Counsel to Slobodan Milosevic”. Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics. Volume 18, No. 947.
Mason, A. T. (1956). Harlan Fiske Stone: Pillar of the Law. New York: Viking
Mason, A. T. (1956). Harlan Fiske Stone: Pillar of the Law. New York: Viking.
Materni, Mike C. (2013). “Criminal Punishment and the Pursuit of Justice”. British Journal of American Legal Studies. Volume 2, No. 1.
Melissaris, Emmanuel. (2014, November). Theories of Crime and Punishment. The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law.
Meseret, Elias. (2017, February 1). African leaders OK strategy for mass withdrawal from ICC. Addis Ababa: AP.
Mill, John S. (2011). Utilitarianism. Broadview Press.
Mudukuti, Angela. (2019, November 20). Centre Stage Again: Allegations of UK War Crimes in Iraq. Opinio Juris and International Commission of Jurists.
Murphy, Jeffrie G. (1990). “Getting Even: The Role of the Victim”. Crime, Culpability, and Remedy. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Murphy, Ray. (2013, June 6). “Many criticisms of International Criminal Court have validity”. The Irish Times.
Newton, Michael A. & Michael P. Scharf. (2008, September 16). Enemy of the State: The Trial and Execution of Saddam Hussein. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Newton, Michael A. and Michael P. Scharf. (2008). Enemy of the State: The Trial and Execution of Saddam Hussein. New York: St Martin’s Press. 486
Nicholls, Anthony. (Undated). The Nuremberg Trials: Victors' Justice or a Categorical Imperative? Oxford University Press.
Nichols, Michelle. (2013, November 15). “Africa fails to get Kenya ICC trials deferred at United Nations”. Reuters.
No. 251. (1945, August 8). Agreement for the prosecution and punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis. London.
Nuremberg Trial Proceedings. (1945, November 21). Yale Law School.
Olugbuo, Benson Chinedu. (2014, September 12). The African Union, the United Nations Security Council and the Politicisation of International Justice in Africa. African Journal of Legal Studies. Volume 7, Issue 3.
Orentlicher, Diane F. (2008). Shrinking the Space for Denial. New York: Open Society Justice Initiative & International Center for Transitional Justice.
Orentlicher, Diane F. (2010, July). That Someone Guilty be Punished: The Impact of the ICTY in Bosnia. New York: Open Society Justice Initiative & International Center for Transitional Justice.
Pathak, Bishnu. (2019). Transformative Harmony and Inharmony in Nepal’s Lost Transition. Delhi: Studera
Pathak, Bishnu. (2019, July 25). “Generations of Transitional Justice in the World”. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal. Volume 6, No. 7. London. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.67.6728.
Pathak, Bishnu. (2020, February 25). “Jurisdictions of The Hague Court”. World Journal of Social Science Research. Volume 7, No. 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/wjssr.v7n1p17.
Pendas, D. (2005). The Frankfurt Auschwitz Trial, 1963–1965: Genocide, History, and the Limits of the Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Perry, Mark. (2014, May 25). “Rethinking Douglas MacArthur”. Politico Magazine.
Persico, Joseph E. (2000). Nuremberg: Infamy on Trial. London: Penguin Books.
Peskin, Victor. (2008). International Justice in Rwanda and the Balkans: Virtual Trials and the Struggle for State Cooperation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Potsdam. (1945, July 26). Proclamation Calling for the Surrender of Japan: Approved by the Heads of Governments of the United States, China, and the United Kingdom. Retrieved November 13, 2018, from http://www1.udel.edu/History-old/figal/hist371/assets/pdfs/potsdam.pdf.
Preliminary Examination: Afghanistan. Retrieved September 12, 2018, from https://www.icccpi.int/afghanistan.
Press Release. (1999, January 16). Kosovo: Statement by Justice Louise Arbour, Prosecutor of the ICTY. The Hague.
Press Release. (2006, May 31). Release of Internal Report Into Slobodan Milosevic's Death. The Hague: ICTY.
Press Release. (2014, May 8). The determination of the Office of the Prosecutor on the communication received in relation to Egypt. The Hague: ICC.
Press Release. (2018, March 6). Museum Rescinds Award to Daw Aung San Suu Kyi. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
Press Release. (2020, January 28). ICC Pre-Trial Chamber invites Palestine, Israel, interested States and others to submit observations. The Hague: ICC.
Press Release. (2020, March 5). Afghanistan: ICC Appeals Chamber authorizes the opening of an investigation. The Hague: ICC.
Primoratz, Igor. (2010, June 23). Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II. Berghahn Books. 487 Pathak, B. (2020). Critiques on the Tribunals and The Hague Court. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(7) 445-491.
Raab, Dominic. (2005, March 1). “Evaluating the ICTY and its Completion Strategy: Efforts to Achieve Accountability for War Crimes and their Tribunals”. Journal of International Criminal Justice. Volume 3, Issue 1. https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/3.1.82.
Rada amends Constitution of Ukraine in part of justice. Retrieved May 12, 2020, from https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/347592.html.
Ratner, S.R. and Abrams, J.S. (2009). Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law: Beyond the Nuremberg Legacy. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
Remembering Pearl Harbor. (2001, December 7). A Pearl Harbor Fact Sheet. Los Angeles: The National WWII Museum.
Restorative Justice. Retrieved April 29, 2020, from http://restorativejustice.org/restorativejustice/#sthash.gWd9PhOe.dpbs
Retrieved April 23, 2020, from http://www.kevinpezzi.com/blog/Hirohito_war_criminal.php.
Retrieved April 27, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/punishment#ref272336.
Retrieved April 28, 2020, from http://www.duhaime.org/LegalDictionary/D/Denunciation.aspx
Retrieved May 25, 2020, from https://www.hws.edu/academics/ctl/pdf/critique.pdf.
Retrieved May 25, 2020, from https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/critique.
Reuters. (2019, April 5). U.S. revokes ICC prosecutor's entry visa over Afghanistan investigation. Toronto.
Richard, Judge May. (2001, July 3). Milosevic hearing transcript. London: BBC.
Ristic, Marija. (2013, April 11). Serbian Slams Hague Tribunal at UN Debate. Balkan Transitional Justice.
Robbins, James. (2017, December 31). The future of international justice. London: BBC.
Röling, B. V. A. & Rüter, C. F. (1977). The Tokyo Judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (I.M.T.F.E), 29 April 1946-12 November 1948. Amsterdam: APA-University Press.
Rosen, Fredrick. (2003, July 24). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Taylor & Francis
Russian Press. (2006, February 25). Russian Reaction to Hague Tribunal’s Denial of Medical Treatment. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. Moscow.
Rychlak, Ronald J. (1990, December 1). “Society's Moral Right to Punish: A Further Exploration of the Denunciation Theory of Punishment”. Tulane Law Review. Vol. 65, No. 2.
S/RES/955. (1994, November 8). Resolution 955 (1994). United Nations Security Council.
S/RES/977. (1995, February 22). Resolution 977 (1995). United Nations Security Council.
Sabbagh, Dan and Kate Proctor. (2019, November 18). “War crimes claims against UK troops need ICC scrutiny, says Labour”. The Guardian.
Santry, Clare. (2013, August 19). The Nuremberg Trial: A Beautiful Idea Murdered by Ugly Facts? University of London.
SC/11176. (2013, November 15). Security Council Resolution seeking deferral of Kenyan leaders’ trial failed to win adoption, with 7 voting in favor, 8 abstaining. Retrieved May 8, 2020, from https://www.un.org/press/en/2013/sc11176.doc.htm.
Schaer, Cathrin. (2019, July 31). “Prosecuting Syrian War-Crimes Suspects From Berlin”. The Atlantic.
Scharf, Michael P. (1998, August 11). “Results of the Rome Conference for an International Criminal Court”. Insights. Volume 3, No. 10.
Schnabel, James F. (2016, April 24). The Korean War: Policy and Direction the First Year (United States Army in the Korean War). St. John's Press. 488
Schouten, Lisette. (2014). From Tokyo to the United Nations: B.V.A. Röling, International Criminal Jurisdiction and the Debate on Establishing an International Criminal Court, 1949–1957. Torkel Opsahl Academic E-Publisher
Schwelb, E. (2008). “Crimes against humanity”. Perspectives on the Nuremberg Trial. Oxford: Oxford University
Seagrave, Sterling & Peggy Seagrave. (2003). Gold warriors: America's secret recovery of Yamashita's gold. London & New York: Verso.
Sellars, Kirsten. (March 2013). ‘Crimes against Peace’ and International Law. Cambridge University Press.
Sense Tribunal. (2011, July 19). Florence Hartmann Case: Conviction and Sentence Upheld on Appeal. The Hague.
Sherman, Lawrence W and Heather Strang. (2007). Restorative Justice: The Evidence. The Smith Institute.
Shrivastava, Shikhar. (1920, November 25). A Retributive Theory of Punishment: A Brief. Law Times Journal.
Singh, Param-Preet. (2020, January 27). Landmark World Court Order Protects Rohingya from Genocide. Human Rights Watch.
Situation in Georgia. Retrieved May 4, 2020, from https://www.icc-cpi.int/georgia.
Smith, Bradley F. (1977). Reaching Judgment at Nuremberg: The Untold Story of How the Nazi War Criminals Were Judged. New York: Basic Books.
Solsten, E. (1995). Germany: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.
Sparrow, Paul M. (2015, October 20). “I Hate Returned”! General MacArthur and FDR. FDR Presidential Library and Museum.
Spoerri, Marlene & Annette Freyberg-Inan. (2008, December 12). “From prosecution to persecution: perceptions of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in Serbian domestic politics”. Journal of International Relations and Development 11. DOI: 10.1057/jird.2008.21.
Ssenyonjo, M. (2017, June 13). State Withdrawal Notifications from the Rome Statute of the ICC: South Africa, Burundi and the Gambia. Criminal Law Forum. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198810568.003.0010.
Statement by US President Bill Clinton, authorizing the US signing of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. (December 31, 2000). Retrieved May 2, 2020, from http://www.iccnow.org/documents/USClintonSigning31Dec00.pdf.
Stephen James F. (1883). A History of the Criminal Law of England. Cambridge University Press.
Stephen, Chris. (2004, October 10). “Milosevic: ‘no link to genocide found’”. The Guardian.
Streifer, Bill. (2017). The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Through the Eyes of Prof. Bunsaku Arakatsu. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences.
Sweeney, John, Jens Holsoe and Ed Vulliamy. (1999, October 17). “Nato bombed Chinese deliberately”. The Guardian.
Syrian Civil War. (2019, February 25). Why is there a war in Syria? London: BBC.
Tanaka, Yuki, Tim McCormack and Gerry Simpson. (2010). Beyond Victor’s Justice? The Tokyo War Crimes Trial Revisited. Leiden & Boston: Martinus Nifhoff Publishers.
Teitel, Ruti G. (2000). Transitional Justice. Oxford University Press.
The Economist. (October 5, 1946). The Editorial of the Nuremberg Judgment. London.
The Guardian. (February 1, 2016). African Union members back Kenyan plan to leave ICC. African Union: Agence France-Presse.
The Japanese Times. (2006, March 31). Chongqing bombing victims sue. Tokyo. 489 Pathak, B. (2020). Critiques on the Tribunals and The Hague Court. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(7) 445-491.
The New York Times. (1992, September 24). Germans Find Mass Graves at an Ex-Soviet Camp. New York.
The New York Times. (2019, December 20). Russia and China Block Cross-Border Aid Deliveries to Syria. New York.
The Soviet special camp No.7 / No. 1 1945 – 1950. Retrieved April 17, 2020, from www.stiftungbg.de/gums/en/geschichte/speziallager/spezial01.htm.
Theories of Punishment. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from https://law.jrank.org/pages/9576/Punishment-THEORIES-PUNISHMENT.html
Thompson, H.K. & Henry Strutz. (1983). Doenitz at Nuremberg: A Re-Appraisal - War Crimes and the Military Professional. Amber Publication Corporation.
Timothy, Maga. (2001). Judgment at Tokyo: the Japanese war crimes trials. University Press of Kentucky.
Tisdall, Simon. (2019, March 9). “Those responsible for Syria’ agony must be brought to book, starting at top”. The Guardian. Gurdian News and Media limited.
Tony, Michael. (2011). “Can Twenty-first Century Punishment Policies Be Justified in Principle?” Retributivism Has a Past: Has It a Future? Oxford Scholarship Online.
Transnational. Retrieved May 1, 2020, from https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/transnational.
Traynor, Ian. (2010, August 18). “Carla Del Ponte investigated over illegal evidence”. The Guardian.
Trent, Carol L. (2019, August 23). Transnational Justice. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118929803.ewac0497.
Tribunal. Retrieved May 25, 2020, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/tribunal.
United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. Retrieved April 11, 2020, from https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal.
United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. Retrieved May 16, 2020, from https://unictr.irmct.org/.
United Nations. (2006, May 30). Report to the President: Death of the Slobodan Milosevic. The Hague: ICTY.
United Nations: Treaty Collection. Retrieved April 30, 2020, from https://treaties.un.org/.
UNMIK. (1999, June). Promoting security, stability and respect for human rights in Kosovo. Kosovo.
Utley, Freda. (1949, January 1). The high cost of vengeance. Arcola Publication.
Vermeulen, Marthe Lot. (1979, August 6). Enforced Disappearance: Determining State Responsibility under the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. School of Human Rights Research Series, Volume 51.
Verovšek, Peter J. (January 12, 2018). The Lessons of the ICTY for Transitional Justice. EUROZINE.
Walker, David M. (1980). The Oxford Companion to the Law. Oxford University Press.
Waters, Timothy William (Ed.). (2013). The Milosevic Trial: An Autopsy. Oxford University Press.
Webber, Rebecca. (2009, October 25). A new kind of criminal justice. Parade Magazine.
Wiggers, Richard Dominic. (2003). "The United States and the refusal to feed German civilians after World War II." Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Boulder: Columbia University Press.
Wilson, S., Cribb, R., Trefalt, B., & Aszkielowicz, D. (2017). Japanese War Criminals: the Politics of Justice after the Second World War. New York: Columbia University Press.
Wright, Quincy. (1948, April). Legal Positivism and the Nuremberg Judgment. American Journal of International Law. Volume 42, No. 2. URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.77.8636 490
Wyzanski, C. E. (1946, April). Nuremberg: A Fair Trial? A Dangerous Precedent. Retrieved November 10, 2018, from www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1946/04/ nuremberg-a-fair-trial-a-dangerousprecedent/306492/.
Yannis, A. (2010, December 7). “Kosovo under international administration”. Survival. Volume 43, No. 2.
Yee, Sienho. (2004, January 1). “The Tu Quoque Argument as a Defence to International Crimes, Prosecution or Punishment”. Chinese Journal of International Law. Volume 3, Issue 1.
Yenne, Bill. (2014, September 23). The Imperial Japanese Army: The Invincible Years 1941-42. Osprey Publishing.
Zupan, N. (2006). Facing the Past and Transitional Justice in Countries of the Former Yugoslavia. Bosnia-Herzegovina: Peacebuilding and Civil Society.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2020 Bishnu Pathak
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
