Critical Materials in Automotive Industry: A Brief Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14738/aivp.115.15680Keywords:
rare metals, critical materials in automotive, risk supplyAbstract
Metals in the automotive industry are the basis of production. Due to the transformation of the automotive industry towards electromobility, the demand for materials defined as critical is increasing. Critical materials include, among others: iridium (Ir), cobalt (Co), neodymium (Nd), dysprosium (Dy), gallium (Ga), terbium (Tb), graphite and platinum (Pt). The article characterizes critical materials, with particular attention paid to rare earth metals, without which the production of modern cars would be impossible. Obtaining this group of materials is associated with supply problems, lack of diversification of supplies and unclear impact of their production technology on the environment, due to the location of the industry in poorly controlled regions where compliance with ecological principles is questionable. The article is a review of data taken from studies, reports and articles regarding critical materials in the automotive industry. It addresses the most important problems related to the extraction and production of this group of metals, prices, the impact of their production on the environment and their use in cars.
References
Moro, C.; Different materials used in the making of our cars!, Available online: https://www.teambhp.com/news/different-materials-used-making-our-cars, 2nd February 2021 (accessed on 17 September 2023)
Ghassemieh, E,; Materials in Automotive Application, State of the Art and Prospects, New Trends and Developments in Automotive Industry, 2023, 365- 395, Available online: https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/13343/InTech-Materials_in_automotive_application_state_of_the_art_and_prospects.pdf (accessed on 17 September 2023)
Demirkesen, A., Uçar, M. Investigation of the effects of using aluminum alloys in electric vehicles production, Conference Paper , 2021, Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348116085 , file:///C:/Users/Dell/Downloads/AhmetDemirkesenmascon2020-1.pdf (accessed on 17 September 2023)
Andr´e H., Ljunggren, M. Short and long-term mineral resource scarcity impacts for a car manufacturer: The case of electric traction motors, Journal of Cleaner Production, 2022, Volume 361, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132140
Critical minerals market sees unprecedented growth as clean energy demand drives strong increase in investment, Critical minerals market review, 2023, Available online: https://www.iea.org/news/criticalminerals-market-sees-unprecedented-growth-as-clean-energy-demand-drives-strong-increase-ininvestment (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Samsung electronics’ responsible minerals report 2023. Available online: file:///c:/users/dell/downloads/responsible_minerals_report_2023_en.pdf) (accessed on 18 September 2023)
What Are Critical Materials and Critical Minerals? Critical Minerals & Materials Program, 2023, Available online: https://www.energy.gov/cmm/what-are-critical-materials-and-critical-minerals (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Sinha, S.J., Teja, J., Sharma G., Jha N., Kumar S., Ganta S. 2023, Mine to market: critical minerals supply chain for domestic value addition in lithium-ion battery manufacturing. Available online: https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-07/Mine-to-market_NITI-Aayog-Publication_June-2023.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Field III, F.R., Wallington, T.J., Everson, M., Kirchain, R.E., Environental Science Technology, 2017, Volume 51, 24, 14436–14444, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b06063
Calvo, G., Valero, A.,Valero, A., How can strategic metals drive the economy? Tungsten and tin production in Spain during periods of war, The Extractive Industries and Society, 2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, 8-14, DOI: 10.1016/j.exis.2018.07.008
Chang,C., Yuan, C., Chan, S., Ocampo, D., Ao, A. 2023, China’s global reach grows behind critical minerals, August 2023, Available online: https://www.spglobal.com/_division_assets/images/special-editorial/chinas-global-reach-grows-behind-critical-minerals/082423-china-s-global-reach-grows-behind-criticalminerals.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Alicia Valero, A., Valero, A., Calvo, G., Villacampa, M., Iglesias, M., Strategic metals ranking in the automobile sector, Conference Paper , October 2018, Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328065292 (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Critical Materials Assessment, U.S. Department of Energy, 2023, Available online: https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-07/doe-critical-material-assessment_07312023.pdf
Richert, M., Dudek, M., Selected Problems of the Automotive Industry—Material and Economic Risk, Journal. of Risk and Financial Management, 2023, Volume 16, 8, 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm16080368
Chen, W., Peng Wang, P., Chen W-Q. 2023, Growing Terbium Shortage Urges Radical Green Mining of Heavy Rare Earths EGU23-4592, updated on 25 Aug 2023, Available online: https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphereegu23-4592 file:///C:/Users/Dell/Downloads/EGU23-4592-print-1.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Notice of Final Determination on 2023 DOE Critical Materials List. A Notice by the Energy Department on 08/04/2023, Available online: https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/08/04/2023-16611/notice-of-final-determination-on-2023-doe-critical-materials-list (accessed on September 2023)
Kamasa, J. Securing Europe’s Supplyof Rare Earths, Policy Perspectives, 2023, Volume 11, 2, April 2023, Available online: https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securitiesstudies/pdfs/PP11-2_2023-EN.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Electric vehicles and rare earths, Edison Explains, Available online: https://d3s3shtvds09gm.cloudfront.net/e9759d970ea0eae1ece2824e7593 84cb.pdf, 29, January 2019
Tran M., Banister D., Bishop J.D., McCulloch M.D., Realizing the electric-vehicle revolution. Nature Climate Change, 2012, Volume 2, 328–333. doi:10.1038/nclimate1429
Griffiths, H., What is cobalt use for in electric cars? Available online: https://www.carwow.co.uk/blog/whatis-cobalt-used-for-in-elecrtic-cars#gref, October 07, 2022 (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Costlier cars? Why China’s gallium, germanium export curbs matter, Available online: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/12/costlier-cars-why-chinas-gallium-germanium-export-curbsmatter, 12 Jul 2023 (accessed on 18 Septembert 2023)
Simanaitis, D., I'll Raise You One Dysprosium, 11 Aprill 2011, Available online: https://www.roadandtrack.com/new-cars/car-technology/news/a17006/ill-raise-you-one-dysprosium/
Critical materials underpinning energy transition: dysprosium & terbium, March 31, 2023, MMTA, Available online: https://mmta.co.uk/2023/03/31/critical-materials-underpinning-energy-transition-dysprosiumterbium/ (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Neodymium Market By Type (Metal, Compound), By Application (Permanent Magnets, Catalysts, Ceramics, Glass, and Others), By End-Use Industry (Automotive, Electronics and Electrical, Energy and Power, and Others), and By Region Forecast to 2032, Materials and Chemicals - Neodymium Market, May 2023, Available online: https://www.reportsanddata.com/report-detail/neodymium-market (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Barrera, P., Graphite Market Update: H1 2023, Review, Jul. 18, 2023, Available online: https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/battery-metals-investing/graphiteinvesting/graphite-forecast/ (accessed on 18 September 2023)
What is common uses of iridium and its applications?, ECHEMI 2022-11-25, Available online: https://www.echemi.com/cms/1069303.html (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Daily metal prices,2023, Available online: https://www.dailymetalprice.com/metalprices.php?c=ir&u=kg&d=10 (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Lis Sowerbutts, L. The Seven Rarest Metals, June 25, 2021, Available online: https://www.geologyforinvestors.com/7-rarest-metals-which-you-never-heard-of/ (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Science and technology, Iridium, 2023, Available online: https://www.britannica.com/science/iridium
Nature Publishing Group Ne•.4720 April 16, 1960 NATURE IRIDIUM-PLATINUM ALLOYS, Available online: https://www.nature.com/articles/186211a0.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Iridium Platinum Alloys, 1960, A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THEIR CONSTITUTION AND PROPERTIES, Platinum Metals Rev., Volume 4, (1) 18-26 https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/matthey/pmr/1960/00000004/00000001/art00007?crawler=true&mimetype=application/pdf
Wang, S., Sun, Y., Chen, S., Wang, S., Li, A., Duan, Y., Yang, Y., Peng, M., Xie,M., Li, B., Effect of Y on Arc Breaking Behavior of Platinum–Iridium Alloy Contact Materials at Different Voltages, Metals 2023, Volume 13, 8, 1394; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13081394
Cabri, L.J., Thomas Oberthür, T., Keays, R.R., Origin and depositional history of platinum-group minerals in placers – A critical review of facts and fiction, Ore Geology Reviews, 2022, Volume 144, 104733, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2022.104733,
Yusenko, K.V., Zvereva, V.V., Martynova, S.A., Asanov, I.P., La Fontaine, C., Roudenko, O., Gubanov, A.I., Plyusnin, P.E., Korenev, S.V., Asanovab, T.I., Insight of the thermal decomposition of ammonium hexahalogenoiridates(IV) and hexachloroiridate(III), Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2020, Volume 22, 22923-22934, DOI: 10.1039/D0CP02743J
Christie, T., Challis, A. Mineral Commodity Report 5 — Platinum Group Metals, Available online: https://www.nzpam.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/doing-business/mineral-potential/platinum-group-metals.pdf
Omrani,M., Goriaux, M., Liu, Y., Martinet, S., Jean-Soro, L., Ruban, V., Platinum group elements study in automobile catalysts and exhaust gas samples, Environmental Pollution, 2020, Volume 257, 113477, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113477
Mineral Resources1Official Guide to South Africa 2017/18 Available online: ttps://www.gcis.gov.za/sites/default/files/docs/resourcecentre/pocketguide/16-Mineral%20Resources-1718.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Idoine, N.E., Raycraft, E.R., Price, F., Hobbs, S.F., Deady, E.A., Everett, P., Shaw, R.A., Evans, E.J., Mills , A.J. World Mineral Production, 2017–2021, BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 2023, Available online: https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/534316/1/WMP_2017_2021_FINAL.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Raykhtsaum, G., PGM Highlights: Platinum Alloys: A Selective Review of the Available Literature, Platinum Metals Rev., 2013, Volume 57, (3), 202 -213, doi: 10.1595/147106713X668596
Yousif, A.M. Recovery and Then Individual Separation of Platinum, Palladium and Rhodium from Spent Car Catalytic Converters Using Hydrometallurgical Technique Followed by Successive Precipitation Methods, , Journal of Chemistry, 2019, Volume 2019, https://dpi.org/10.1155/2019/2318157
Adams, B.D., Chen, A., The role of palladium in a hydrogen economy, Materials Today, 2011, Volume 14, 282-289, DOI: 10.1016/S1369-7021(11)70143-2
Precious Metals in Cars, Published on May 24, 2022 by APMEX, Available online: https://learn.apmex.com/learning-guide/science/precious-metals-in-cars/ (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Demand for Silver in Automobile Production Expected to Rise, January 12, 2021 by SchiffGold.Available online: https://schiffgold.com/key-gold-news/demand-for-silver-in-automobile-production-expected-torise/ (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Gold Prices vs Silver Prices Historical Chart, macrotrends, Available online: https://www.macrotrends.net/2517/gold-prices-vs-silver-prices-historical-chart (accessed on 18
Growth of Self-Driving Electric Cars Affecting Metals Demand, Published on May 24, 2022 by APMEX, Available online: https://learn.apmex.com/learning-guide/science/how-will-the-growth-of-selfdrivingelectric-cars-affect-demand-for-palladium-and-platinum/ (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Międzynarodowa Agencja Energetyczna [IEA], 2021
Ijaz, S., Rare Earth Metals Production By Country: Top 10 Countries, 22 June 2023, Available online: https://finance.yahoo.com/news/rare-earth-metals-production-country-153747208.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAACtmNg66t7FCRAC1h60S5e4uSqSzlbctMDz9z6lW2FYrjHkeDiD0DTOMTMX5YXFq8lD_QqyKfGSR8STs LgAYAaIDXAL1HEz9lAUOvFzpOeN2f5bz8jCC0yPxJKlBlwzGGUjpelcMBc06ZMdYZiM8WobzvysQndsHu2-6gvTGEPig (accessed on 18 September 2023)
McLeod, C.L., Barry Shaulis, B., Rare Earth Elements in Planetary Crusts: Insights from Chemically Evolved Igneous Suites on Earth and the Moon, Minerals, 2018, Volume 8(10), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8100455
Rare Earth Elements, Minerals UK, Available online: https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12583/1/Rare_Earth_Elements_profile.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Balaram, V., Focus Paper Rare earth elements: A review of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling, and environmental impact, Geoscience Frontiers, 2019, Volume 10, Issue 4, 1285-1303, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005
Graff, M., Kempf, B., Breme, J., Iridium Alloy for Spark Plug Electrodes, December 2005 Chicago, DOI:10.1002/3527606025.ch1, In book: Materials for Transportation Technology, 2005, Volume 1 (pp.1-8)
A. E. Suarez, A.E., Caffrey, P.F., P. V. Borgoul, P.V., J. M. Ondov, J.M., Divita, F., Use of an Iridium Tracer To Determine the Size Distribution of Aerosol Emitted from a Fleet of Diesel Sanitation Trucks, Environment Science Technology, 1998, Volume 32, 10, 1522–1529, Publication Date:March 31, 1998,
Rare Earth Metals Market Demand Forecast Report, 2022-2030, 2023, Available online: (psmarketresearch.com) (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Sinisalo, P., Lundström, M., Refining Approaches in the Platinum Group Metal Processing Value Chain—A Review, Metals, 2018, Volume 8(4), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/met8040203
Matthey, J., PGM market report, May 2023, Available online: https://matthey.com/documents/161599/404086/PGM+Market+Report+May23.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Li, P., Liu, Q., Zhou, P., Li, Y., Mapping global platinum supply chain and assessing potential supply risks, original research article, Front. Energy Res., 24 January 2023, Sec. Sustainable Energy Systems, 2023, Volume 11, https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2023.1033220
List of countries by platinum production, Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_platinum_production, (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Sykes, J., A global overview of the geology and economics of lithium production, 3 July 2019, Available online: https://minexconsulting.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Lithium-Presentation-July-2019.pdf,
Shi, Q., Lu, C., Cao,Y., Hao, Y., Alicja Bachmatiuk, A., Rümmeli, M.H., Recent developments in current collectors for lithium metal anodes, Materials Chemistry Frontiers, 2023, Volume 7, 1298-1311, DOI: 10.1039/d3qm00029
Julien CM., Advanced Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage: Lithium-Ion, Lithium-Sulfur, Lithium-Air and Sodium Batteries. International Journal of Molecular Science, 2023, Volume 3;24(3):3026. doi: 10.3390/ijms24033026. PMID: 36769348; PMCID: PMC9918182.
Szlugaj,J., Barbara Radwanek-Bąk, B., Lithium sources and their current use, Gospodarka Surowcami Mineralnymi – Mineral Resources Management; 2022, Volume 38(1):61–87, DOI: https://doi.org/10.24425/gsm.2022.140613
Jaskula, B.W. 2021, LITHIUM, U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2021, Available online: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-lithium.pdf, (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Mancheri, N.A., Sprecher, B., Bailey, G., Ge, J., Tukker, A., Effect of Chinese policies on rare earth supply chain resilience, Resources, Conservation & Recycling, 2019, Volume 142, 101-112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.11.017
Kamasa, J., Securing Europe’s Supply of Rare Earths. Policy Perspectives, 2023, Volume 11/2, https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/PP11-2_2023-EN.pdf
Securing Europe's supply of critical raw materials.The material nature of the EU's strategic goals, BRIEFING, European Union, 2023. Available online: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/739394/EPRS_BRI(2023)739394_EN.pdf
Gen. John Abizaid (ret.) et al. Critical Materials: Geopolitics, Interdependence, and Strategic, Competition, Lazard 175, 2023, Available online: https://www.lazard.com/media/uqnka4vf/critical-materials-researchbrief-may-2023.pdf, (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Critical Minerals Strategy 2023–2030, June 2023, Available online: https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-06/critical-minerals-strategy-2023-2030.pdf
The Hon Madeleine King MP, Creating a new vision for Australia's critical minerals, 2 December 2022, Available online: https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/king/media-releases/creating-newvision-australias-critical-minerals (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Shantha S.N. Gamage; Verunika W. P. H; Waduge V. A; Siriwardana C. H. E. R., Determination of rare earth element contents in the pulmoddai-based monazite, International Journal of Advanced Research, IJAR, 2018, Volume 6 (7), 1229-1236, DOI:10.21474/IJAR01/7480
Kumari, A., Panda, R., Jha, M.K., Kumar, J.R., Lee, J.Y.,. Process development to recover rare earth metals from monazite mineral: a review. Minerals Engineering, 2015, Volume 79, Kumari, A., Panda, R., Jha, M.K., Kumar, J.R., Lee, J.Y.,. Process development to recover rare earth metals from monazite mineral: a review. Minerals Engineering, 2015, Volume 79, 102-115, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2015.05.003
R.M., Izatt, S.R., Izatt, N.E., Krakowiak, K.E., Bruening, R.L., Navarro, L., Industrial applications of molecular recognition technology to green chemistry separations of platinum group metals and selective removal of metal impurities from process streams. Green Chemistry, 2015, Volume 17, 4, DOI:10.1039/C4GC02188F
Izatt, R.M., Izatt, S.R., Izatt, N.E., Bruening, R.L., Krakowiak, K.E., Green chemistry molecular recognition processes applied to metal separations in ore beneficiation, element recycling, metal remediation, and elemental analysis. In: Beach, E.S., Kundu, S. (Eds.), Handbook of Green Chemistry, 2017, Volume 10, Tools for Green Chemistry, first ed. Wiley-VCH Verlag, Weinheim, Germany, pp. 189-240.
Izatt, S.R., Bruening, R.L., Krakowiak, K.E., Izatt, R.M., Molecular recognition technology: green chemistry separation and recovery of individual rare earth elements from primary and secondary sources. In: Proc. International Conference on Science and Technology of Rare Earths, 2018, 23-25, September, Tirupati, AP, India, pp. 7-8)
Browning, C., Northey, S., Haque, N., Bruckard, W., Cooksey, M., Life Cycle Assessment of Rare Earth Production from Monazite, REWAS 2016: Towards Materials Resource Sustainability, Edited by: Randolph E. Kirchain, Bart Blanpain, Christina Meskers, Elsa Olivetti, Diran Apelian, John Howarter, Anne Kvithyld, Brajendra Mishra, Neale R. Neelameggham, and Jeff Spangenberger TMS , The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 2016
Life cycle assessment, IPA, Available online: https://ipa-news.de/index/sustainability/assessing-the-lifecycle-second-ipa-lca-study-(2017-data).html (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Isohara, T., Environmental Impacts of Steel Products –LCA of Steel Products, Nippon steel technical report No. 127, January 2022, Technical Review, Available online: https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/pdf/127-04.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Hundermark, K., Zackrisson, M., Gradle-to-gate – understanding CO2 footprint of hot-rolled bar steel products, Available online: https://www.ovako.com/49a400/globalassets/downloads/products/cradle-togate--understanding-co2-footprint.pdf) (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Stainless Steel and CO2: Facts and Scientific Observations, Available online: https://aceroplatea.es/docs/ISSF_Stainless_Steel_and_CO2.pdf, 2015 (accessed on 18 September 2023)
IEA, Critical Minerals Market Review 2023, Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/afc35261-41b2-47d4-86d6-d5d77fc259be/CriticalMineralsMarketReview2023.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Filho, W.L., Kotter, R., Özuyar, P.G., Abubakar, I.R., Paulino, J.H., Eustachio, P., Matandirotya, N.R., Understanding Rare Earth Elements as Critical Raw Materials, Sustainability 2023, Volume 15(3), 1919; 1-19, https://doi.org/10.3390/su15031919
Schäfer, B., Breton, T., ERMA, Maroš Šefčovič, Rare Earth Magnets and Motors: A European Call for Action A report by the Rare Earth Magnets and Motors Cluster of the European Raw Materials Alliance, 2021, Available online: https://eitrawmaterials.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/ERMA-Action-Plan-2021-A-European-Call-for-Action.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Obasa, V.D., Olanrewaju, O.A., Gbenebor,O.P., Odili, C.C., Abiodun, Y.O., Adeosun, S.O., A Review on Lignin-Based Carbon Fibres for Carbon Footprint Reduction, Atmosphere, 2022, Volume 13, 1605. 1-19, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13101605
Dang, D.H., Filella, M. & Omanović, D. Technology-Critical Elements: An Emerging and Vital Resource that Requires more In-depth Investigation. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2021, Volume 81, 517–520, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-021-00892-6
Schulz, K.J., Piatak, N.M., Papp J.F., Edited by: Klaus J. Schulz, John H. DeYoung, Jr., Robert R. Seal II, and Dwight C. Bradley, 2017, Niobium and tantalum, Chapter M of , USGS Publication Warenhouse, pub. U.S. Geological Survey, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802M, Available online: https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/pp1802M, (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Carvalho, F., Tufa, M.B., Oliviera, J.M., Malta, M., Radionuclides and Radiation Exposure in Tantalite Mining, Ethiopia, Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2021, Volume 81(2), DOI:10.1007/s00244-021-00858-8
Ali, S., Social and Environmental Impact of the Rare Earth Industries, Resources 2014, Volume 3, 123-134; doi:10.3390/resources3010123
Critical Minerals, Market Review 2023, IEA, Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/afc35261-41b2-47d4-86d6-d5d77fc259be/CriticalMineralsMarketReview2023.pdf, (accessed on 18 September 2023)
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Maria Richert, Piotr Łebkowski, Joanna Kulczycka, Natalia Iwaszczuk
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
