Medical and Nonmedical Uses of Cannabis: Overview of Cannabis in Egypt
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14738/ejas.1403.1282Keywords:
Cannabis, Autoimmunity, Inflammation, Therapy, Recreation, LegalizationAbstract
The medical use of cannabis is extending across many countries. Some of them legalize its use clearly and others require licensure systems to approve treatment for eligible patients. Despite this growing interest and utilization, there remains a lack of solid scientific evidence supporting its medical use, even though cannabis has been used therapeutically for thousands of years. The aim of the following conduct is to present updated data on the potential roles of cannabis-based treatments regulations globally including Egypt against various illness conditions. The information highlighted that incorporating cannabis into the therapeutic system may offer benefits. However, in many cases, despite encouraging perspectives and outcomes, the supporting evidence remains insufficient and requires further validation. Due to social and legal barriers, the conduct of such rigorous clinical trials has been hindered, limiting the availability of high-quality evidence to guide medical practice.
References
Laaboudi FZ, Rejdali M, Salhi A, Elyoussfi A, Talhaoui A, Amhamdi H, Ahari MH. Bibliometric analysis of beneficial cannabis research: performance analysis and science mapping from 2012 to 2022 and focus on Morocco. Toxicology Reports. 2024 Dec 1;13:101713.
Greydanus DE, Nazeer A, Patel DR. Opioid use and abuse in adolescents and young adults; dealing with science, laws and ethics: Charming the COBRAS. Disease-a-Month. 2025 Jan 13:101853.
Sarzi-Puttini P, Batticciotto A, Atzeni F, Bazzichi L, Di Franco M, Salaffi F, Marotto D, Ceribelli A, Ablin JN, Hauser W. Medical cannabis and cannabinoids in rheumatology: where are we now?. Expert review of clinical immunology. 2019 Oct 3;15(10):1019-32.
Elias A, Rosado C, do Céu Costa M. Study on knowledge and perceptions on the uptake of nonmedicinal cannabis-substances and preparations by Portuguese consumers: Borderline issues. Heliyon. 2024 Dec 30;10(24).
Muñoz E, Solis E, Mitchell S. Cannabis Use in Pregnancy and Postpartum: Understanding the Complicated History and Current Recommendations to Facilitate Client-Centered Discussions. Advances in Family Practice Nursing. 2023 May 1;5(1):151-68.
Ladha KS, Mistry N, Wijeysundera DN, Clarke H, Verma S, Hare GM, Mazer CD. Recent cannabis use and myocardial infarction in young adults: a cross-sectional study. Cmaj. 2021 Sep 7;193(35):E1377-84.
Nethengwe M, Maphosa Y, Ahiante BO, Oyenihi AB. Cannabis for medicine and food: A benefit vs risk critical appraisal. South African Journal of Botany. 2024 Dec 1;175:15-31.
Savage, S. R., Romero-Sandoval, A., Schatman, M., Wallace, M., Fanciullo, G., McCarberg, B., & Ware, M. (2016). Cannabis in pain treatment: Clinical and research considerations. The Journal of Pain. 2016 17(6), 654–668.
Pattnaik, F., Nanda, S., Kumar, V., Naik, S., Dalai, A.K. and Mohanty, M.K. Extraction of sugars and cellulose fibers from cannabis stems by hydrolysis, pulping, and bleaching. Chemical Engineering & Technology. 2022 Jan 45(5), pp.962-970. Scholar Publishing
Platt, B., Kamboj, S., Morgan, C.J. and Curran, H.V., 2010. Processing dynamic facial affect in frequent cannabis-users: evidence of deficits in the speed of identifying emotional expressions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 112(1-2), pp.27-32.
Duperrouzel, J.C., Granja, K., Pacheco-Colón, I. and Gonzalez, R., 2020. Adverse effects of cannabis use on neurocognitive functioning: A systematic review of meta-analytic studies. Journal of dual diagnosis, 16(1), pp.43-57.
Daniju, Y., Faulkner, P., Brandt, K. and Allen, P., 2022. Prefrontal cortex and putamen grey matter alterations in cannabis and tobacco users. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 36(12),
Wycoff, A.M., Metrik, J. and Trull, T.J., 2018. Affect and cannabis use in daily life: A review and recommendations for future research. Drug and alcohol dependence, 191, pp.223-233.
De Aquino, J.P., Sherif, M., Radhakrishnan, R., Cahill, J.D., Ranganathan, M. and D’Souza, D.C., 2018. The psychiatric consequences of cannabinoids. Clinical therapeutics, 40(9),
Kerage, D., Sloan, E.K., Mattarollo, S.R., and Mccombe, P.A., 2019. Interaction of neurotransmitters and neurochemicals with lymphocytes. Journal of Neuroimmunology 332, p. 99-111.
Michaeli, I., Lassman, S., Halpert, G., Jacob, G. and Amital, H., 2025. Exploring therapeutic potential of Cannabis based therapy in autoimmune and rheumatic disorders. Autoimmunity Reviews, p.103925.
Furgiuele, A., Cosentino, M., Ferrari, M. and Marino, F., 2021. Immunomodulatory potential of cannabidiol in multiple sclerosis: A systematic review. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 16(2), pp.251-269.
Gonçalves, E.D. and Dutra, R.C., 2019. Cannabinoid receptors as therapeutic targets for autoimmune diseases: where do we stand?. Drug discovery today, 24(9), pp.1845-1853.
Abdel-Salam, O., 2016. Gastric acid inhibitory and gastric protective effects of Cannabis and cannabinoids. Asian Pacific journal of tropical medicine, 9(5), pp.413-419.
Gruber, S.A., Sagar, K.A., Dahlgren, M.K., Racine, M.T., Smith, R.T. and Lukas, S.E., 2016. Splendor in the grass? A pilot study assessing the impact of medical marijuana on executive function. Frontiers in pharmacology, 7, p.355.
Fischer, B. and Albrecht, H.J., 2024. Developments in cannabis enforcement practices and patterns associated with non-medical cannabis legalization policies: a basic literature/data review. Journal of Crime and Justice, pp.1-11.
Izzo, A.A., Borrelli, F., Capasso, R., Di Marzo, V. and Mechoulam, R., 2009. Non-psychotropic plant cannabinoids: new therapeutic opportunities from an ancient herb. Trends in pharmacological sciences, 30(10), pp.515-527.
Chen, S., Tang, H., Tang, L., Yang, W., Xing, S., Jie, S., Ruan, G. and Wang, W., 2025. The Origin, Domestication, and Global Spread of Cannabis (Cannabis sativa). International Journal of Molecular Evolution and Biodiversity, 15.
Streck, J.M., Regan, S., Bearnot, B., Gupta, P.S., Kalkhoran, S., Kalagher, K.M., Wakeman, S. and Rigotti, N.A., 2022. Prevalence of cannabis use and cannabis route of administration among Massachusetts adults in buprenorphine treatment for opioid use disorder. Substance use & misuse, 57(7), pp.1104-1110.
Dhir, A., 2018. Cannabidiol in refractory epilepsy. Studies in Natural Products Chemistry, 58, Scholar Publishing
Katchan, V., David, P. and Shoenfeld, Y., 2016. Cannabinoids and autoimmune diseases: A systematic review. Autoimmunity reviews, 15(6), pp.513-528.
Galve-Roperh, I., Chiurchiù, V., Díaz-Alonso, J., Bari, M., Guzmán, M. and Maccarrone, M., 2013. Cannabinoid receptor signaling in progenitor/stem cell proliferation and differentiation. Progress in lipid research, 52(4), pp.633-650.
Orsolini, L., Chiappini, S., Volpe, U., De Berardis, D., Latini, R., Papanti, G.D. and Corkery, J.M., 2019. Use of medicinal cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a systematic review. Medicina, 55(9), p.525.
Camilleri, M. and Zheng, T., 2023. Cannabinoids and the gastrointestinal tract. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 21(13), pp.3217-3229.
Hunt, D.A., Keefe, J., Whitehead, T. and Littlefield, A., 2020. Understanding cannabis. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 16(9), pp.645-649.
Dahlgren, M.K., Lambros, A.M., Smith, R.T., Sagar, K.A., El-Abboud, C. and Gruber, S.A., 2022. Clinical and cognitive improvement following full-spectrum, high-cannabidiol treatment for anxiety: open-label data from a two-stage, phase 2 clinical trial. Communications medicine, 2(1), p.139.
Castro-Navarro, I., McGuire, M.A., Williams, J.E., Holdsworth, E.A., Meehan, C.L. and McGuire, M.K., 2024. Maternal cannabis use during lactation and potential effects on human milk composition and production: a narrative review. Advances in Nutrition, 15(4), p.100196.
Shah, P.A., Patil, R. and Harrison, S.A., 2023. NAFLD‐related hepatocellular carcinoma: The growing challenge. Hepatology, 77(1), pp.323-338.
Wiley, C.D. and Campisi, J., 2021. The metabolic roots of senescence: mechanisms and opportunities for intervention. Nature metabolism, 3(10), pp.1290-1301.
Narkowicz, S., Płotka, J., Polkowska, Ż., Biziuk, M. and Namieśnik, J., 2013. Prenatal exposure to substance of abuse: a worldwide problem. Environment international, 54,
Wermer, K., Korbacska-Kutasi, O., Berkecz, R., Csupor, D., Ágh, N., Sztojkov-Ivanov, A. and Cserhalmi, D., 2025. Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol and its two main phase I metabolites in Connemara ponies. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12, p.1599934.
Pearlson, G.D., Stevens, M.C. and D'Souza, D.C., 2021. Cannabis and driving. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, p.689444.
Shamloul, R. and Bella, A.J., 2011. Impact of cannabis use on male sexual health. The journal of sexual medicine, 8(4), pp.971-975.
Siwar, M.A.A., Mansour, S.H.E.D., Aldubayan, M.A., Alhowail, A.H., Almogbel, Y.S. and Emara, A.M., 2023. Health status outcome among cannabis addicts after treatment of addiction. Plos one, 18(11), p.e0290730.
Thomas-Brown, P.G.L., Martin, J.S., Sewell, C.A., Abel, W.D. and Gossell-Williams, M.D., 2018. Risperidone provides better improvement of sleep disturbances than haloperidol therapy in schizophrenia patients with Cannabis-Positive urinalysis. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 9, p.769.
Manca, A., Valz, C., Chiara, F., Mula, J., Palermiti, A., Billi, M., Antonucci, M., De Nicolo, A., Luxardo, N., Imperiale, D. and Vischia, F., 2024. Cannabinoid levels description in a cohort of patients with chronic and neuropathic pain treated with Cannabis decoction: A possible role of TDM. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 175, p.116686. Scholar Publishing
Ilan, Y., 2022. Digital medical cannabis as market differentiator: Second-generation artificial intelligence systems to improve response. Frontiers in Medicine, 8, p.788777.
Foster, B.C., Abramovici, H. and Harris, C.S., 2019. Cannabis and cannabinoids: kinetics and interactions. The American journal of medicine, 132(11), pp.1266-1270.
Baggio, S., Deline, S., Studer, J., Mohler-Kuo, M., Daeppen, J.B. and Gmel, G., 2014. Routes of administration of cannabis used for nonmedical purposes and associations with patterns of drug use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54(2), pp.235-240.
Haddad, R., Dagenais, C., Fallu, J.S., Huỳnh, C., D’Arcy, L. and Hot, A., 2024. Facilitators of and obstacles to practitioners’ adoption of harm reduction in cannabis use: a scoping review. Harm Reduction Journal, 21(1), p.178.
Rohit, K.G., Ruchi, P., Itishree, D. and Sapana, K., 2024. Regulatory challenges on cannabis: Concern, advantages, and disadvantages. In Cannabis and its Derivatives (pp. 307-333). Academic Press.
Dasgupta, S., 2021. Cannabinoid receptors: A potential target for osteoporosis pain. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 13(3).
Ng, J.Y., Tahir, U. and Lum, N., 2022. The quality of health information provided on web sites selling cannabis to consumers in Canada is poor. Harm Reduction Journal, 19(1), p.138.
Plebon-Huff, S., Aziz, N., Cavar, M., Hassan, S., Aoun, M., Perwaiz, S. and Abramovici, H., 2025. Trends in cannabis adverse reaction reports: A descriptive analysis of spontaneous reporting data submitted to the Canada Vigilance Program since legalization and regulation of cannabis for non-medical purposes in Canada. Journal of Cannabis Research, 7(1), p.56.
Rabgay K, Waranuch N, Chaiyakunapruk N, Sawangjit R, Ingkaninan K, Dilokthornsakul P., 2020. The effects of cannabis, cannabinoids, and their administration routes on pain control efficacy and safety: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Am Pharm Assoc. 60(1),p. 225–34 https://doi. org/10.1016/j.japh.2019.07.015.
Senator, B., Pardal, M. and Vandam, L., 2025. Evidence synthesis of medical cannabis research: current challenges and opportunities. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 275(2), pp.293-305.
Gherzi, M., Milano, G., Fucile, C., Calevo, M.G., Mancardi, M.M., Nobili, L., Astuni, P., Marini, V., Barco, S., Cangemi, G. and Manfredini, L., 2020. Safety and pharmacokinetics of medical cannabis preparation in a monocentric series of young patients with drug resistant epilepsy. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 51, p.102402.
Sokratous, S., Mpouzika, M., Kaikoushi, K., Alexandrou, G. and Karanikola, M., 2023. Attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge regarding medical cannabis among healthcare students in the Republic of Cyprus: a cross-sectional descriptive correlational study. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, p.1196915.
Nayak, P., Pantvaidya, G., Ranganathan, P., Jiwnani, S., Joshi, S. and Gogtay, N.J., 2023. Clinical studies with Cannabis in India–A need for guidelines for the investigators and ethics committees. Perspectives in Clinical Research, 14(3), pp.146-151.
Greco, A., Del Prete, C., De Biase, D., Palumbo, V., Albanese, S., Bruzzese, D., Carotenuto, D., Ciani, F., Tafuri, S., Meomartino, L. and Mancini, M., 2021. Effects of oral administration of Lepidium meyenii on morphology of mice testis and motility of epididymal sperm cells after tetrahydrocannabinol exposure. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, p.692874. Scholar Publishing
Hoch, E., Volkow, N.D., Friemel, C.M., Lorenzetti, V., Freeman, T.P. and Hall, W., 2025. Cannabis, cannabinoids and health: a review of evidence on risks and medical benefits. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 275(2), pp.281-292.
Lee, C., Eurich, D.T. and Dyck, J.R., 2023. The use of medical cannabis: A focus on Canada— Cannabis, Cannabinoids, and Endocannabinoids. In Medicinal Usage of Cannabis and Cannabinoids (pp. 63-75). Academic Press.
McNabb, M., Durante, K.A., Trocchio, S., Ritter, D.J., MacCaffrie, R., Brum, A., Mandile, S. and White, S., 2023. Self-reported medicinal cannabis use as an alternative to prescription and over-the-counter medication use among US military veterans. Clinical Therapeutics, 45(6), pp.562-577.
Dendrou, C.A., Fugger, L. and Friese, M.A., 2015. Immunopathology of multiple sclerosis. Nature Reviews Immunology, 15(9), pp.545-558.
AlHabil, Y., Saadeddin, L., Ishkirat, H., Alqam, M., Hossoon, O., Hameedi, S., Yacoub, H., Yasin, D., Bahbah, A., Oweidat, M. and Mosa, H., 2025. Assessing the Role of Cannabis in Managing Spasticity in Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Clinical Therapeutics.
Pilloni, G., Pehel, S., Ko, T., Kreisberg, E., Sammarco, C., Charlson, R.E. and Charvet, L., 2025. The unmet need for cannabis use disorder treatment in multiple sclerosis: Insights from a nationwide pilot study. Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders, 98, p.106443.
Kindred, J.H., Li, K., Ketelhut, N.B., Proessl, F., Fling, B.W., Honce, J.M., Shaffer, W.R. and Rudroff, T., 2017. Cannabis use in people with Parkinson’s disease and Multiple Sclerosis: A web-based investigation. Complementary therapies in medicine, 33, pp.99-104.
Gustavsen, S., Søndergaard, H.B., Andresen, S.R., Magyari, M., Sørensen, P.S., Sellebjerg, F. and Oturai, A.B., 2019. Illegal cannabis use is common among Danes with multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis and related disorders, 33, pp.5-12.
Wingerchuk, D., 2004. Cannabis for medical purposes: cultivating science, weeding out the fiction. The Lancet, 364(9431), pp.315-316.
Sadigh-Eteghad S, Farhoudi M, Naseri A, Seyedi-Sahebari S, Ahmadi M, Sadeghi- Bazargani H, et al. Cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis: a population-based study from Iran. J Clin Neurol 2021;17(1):113–20.
Portaccio E, Amato MP. Cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis: an update on assessment and management. NeuroSci 2022;3(4):667–76.
Ghaffar, O. and Feinstein, A., 2008. Multiple sclerosis and cannabis: a cognitive and psychiatric study. Neurology, 71(3), pp.164-169.
Landrigan, J., Bessenyei, K., Leitner, D., Yakovenko, I., Fisk, J.D. and Prentice, J.L., 2022. A systematic review of the effects of cannabis on cognition in people with multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis and related disorders, 57, p.103338.
Riaz, T. and Akram, M., 2024. Cannabis in pain management. Cannabis and Khat in Drug Discovery, pp.475-487.
Jarvis, S., Rassmussen, S. and Winters, B., 2017. Role of the endocannabinoid system and medical cannabis. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 13(8), pp.525-531.
Martinez, J.E. and Guimarães, I., 2024. Fibromyalgia–are there any new approaches?. Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology, 38(1), p.101933.
Friedman, D., French, J.A. and Maccarrone, M., 2019. Safety, efficacy, and mechanisms of action of cannabinoids in neurological disorders. The Lancet Neurology, 18(5), pp.504-512. Scholar Publishing
Chetia, S. and Borah, G., 2020. Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol toxicity and validation of cannabidiol on brain dopamine levels: an assessment on cannabis duplicity. Natural Products and Bioprospecting, 10(5), pp.285-296.
Miller, A.M. and Stella, N., 2008. CB2 receptor‐mediated migration of immune cells: it can go either way. British journal of pharmacology, 153(2), pp.299-308.
Pertwee, R.G., 2009. Emerging strategies for exploiting cannabinoid receptor agonists as medicines. British journal of pharmacology, 156(3), pp.397-411.
Izzo, A.A., Muccioli, G.G., Ruggieri, M.R. and Schicho, R., 2015. Endocannabinoids and the digestive tract and bladder in health and disease. Endocannabinoids, pp.423-447.
Massa, F., Marsicano, G., Hermann, H., Cannich, A., Monory, K., Cravatt, B.F., Ferri, G.L., Sibaev, A., Storr, M. and Lutz, B., 2004. The endogenous cannabinoid system protects against colonic inflammation. The Journal of clinical investigation, 113(8), pp.1202-1209.
Izzo, A.A. and Sharkey, K.A., 2010. Cannabinoids and the gut: new developments and emerging concepts. Pharmacology & therapeutics, 126(1), pp.21-38.
Singh UP, Singh NP, Singh B, Price RL, Nagarkatti M, Nagarkatti PS. Cannabinoid receptor-2 (CB2) agonist ameliorates colitis in IL-10/mice by attenuating the activation of T cells and promoting their apoptosis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2012 Jan 15;258(2):256–67.
Firestein GS, McInnes IB (2017) Immunopathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Immunity 46(2), 183-196.
Richardson, D., Pearson, R.G., Kurian, N., Latif, M.L., Garle, M.J., Barrett, D.A., Kendall, D.A., Scammell, B.E., Reeve, A.J. and Chapman, V., 2008. Characterisation of the cannabinoid receptor system in synovial tissue and fluid in patients with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis research & therapy, 10(2), p.R43.
Lowin, T., Tingting, R., Zurmahr, J., Classen, T., Schneider, M. and Pongratz, G., 2020. Cannabidiol (CBD): A killer for inflammatory rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts. Cell death & disease, 11(8), p.714.
Blake, D.R., Robson, P., Ho, M., Jubb, R.W. and McCabe, C.S., 2006. Preliminary assessment of the efficacy, tolerability and safety of a cannabis-based medicine (Sativex) in the treatment of pain caused by rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology, 45(1), pp.50-52.
Frane, N., Stapleton, E., Iturriaga, C., Ganz, M., Rasquinha, V. and Duarte, R., 2022. Cannabidiol as a treatment for arthritis and joint pain: an exploratory cross-sectional study. Journal of cannabis research, 4(1), p.47.
Fitzcharles MA, Buchbinder R, Ostermann G, Cameron M. Cannabis use in fibromyalgia: a survey of patients. J Rheumatol 2018;45(3):504–10.
Del Río, C., Ruiz-Pino, F., Prados, M.E., Fiebich, B.L., Tena-Sempere, M. and Muñoz, E., 2022. Cannabidiol markedly alleviates skin and liver fibrosis. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 13, p.981817.
Servettaz, A., Kavian, N., Nicco, C., Deveaux, V., Chéreau, C., Wang, A., Zimmer, A., Lotersztajn, S., Weill, B. and Batteux, F., 2010. Targeting the cannabinoid pathway limits the development of fibrosis and autoimmunity in a mouse model of systemic sclerosis. The American journal of pathology, 177(1), pp.187-196.
Zhou L, Yang X, Li W, Zhang H, Liu Y, Zhang T, et al. Discovery of compound 66 as a selective cannabinoid type 2 receptor agonist with anti-fibrotic properties in systemic sclerosis. Eur J Pharmacol 2021;890:173666. Scholar Publishing
Garcia P, Lopez M, others. Cannabinoid therapy in preclinical models of fibrotic diseases: implications for systemic sclerosis. Pharmacol Res 2021;163:105225.
Spiera, R., Khanna, D., Kuwana, M., Furst, D.E., Frech, T.M., Hummers, L., Stevens, W., Matucci-Cerinic, M., Baron, M., Distler, O. and Dgetluck, N., 2021. A randomised, doubleblind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study of lenabasum in diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis: RESOLVE-1 design and rationale. Clinical and experimental rheumatology, 39(4), pp.S124-S133.
Lichtenstein, A., Tiosano, S., Comaneshter, D., Amital, H., Cohen, A.D. and Amital, D., 2018. Cross-sectional analysis of the associations between fibromyalgia and diabetes mellitus. Reumatologia/Rheumatology, 56(5), pp.275-278.
Albo, B. and Amital, H., 2025. The Complex Interplay of Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs, Regulated Medical Cannabis, and Chronic Pain Healthcare Visits. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 40(5), pp.1028-1029.
Singla, A., Anstine, C.V., Huang, L., Rosedahl, J.K., Mohabbat, A.B. and Philpot, L.M., 2024, April. A cross-sectional survey study of cannabis use for fibromyalgia symptom management. In Mayo Clinic Proceedings (Vol. 99, No. 4, pp. 542-550).
Chaves, C., Bittencourt, P.C.T. and Pelegrini, A., 2020. Ingestion of a THC-rich cannabis oil in people with fibromyalgia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Pain medicine, 21(10), pp.2212-2218.
Van De Donk, T., Niesters, M., Kowal, M.A., Olofsen, E., Dahan, A. and Van Velzen, M., 2019. An experimental randomized study on the analgesic effects of pharmaceutical-grade cannabis in chronic pain patients with fibromyalgia. Pain, 160(4), pp.860-869.
Mücke, M., Weier, M., Carter, C., Copeland, J., Degenhardt, L., Cuhls, H., Radbruch, L., Häuser, W. and Conrad, R., 2018. Systematic review and meta‐analysis of cannabinoids in palliative medicine. Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle, 9(2), pp.220-234.
David P, Mohsen A, Amital H. Is medical Cannabis a solution for controlling fibromyalgia symptoms?. In: Mayo Clinic Proceedings; 2024. p. 524–6.
Bryan, A.D., Skrzynski, C.J., Giordano, G., Yang, J., Stanger, M., Bidwell, L.C., Hutchison, K.E. and Perreault, L., 2025. Cannabis use is associated with less peripheral inflammation but similar insulin sensitivity as non-use in healthy adults. The American Journal of Medicine.
YorkWilliams, S.L., Gust, C.J., Mueller, R., Bidwell, L., Hutchison, K.E., Gillman, A.S. and Bryan, A.D., 2019. The new runner's high? Examining relationships between cannabis use and exercise behavior in states with legalized cannabis. Frontiers in Public Health, 7, p.443163.
Pastor, A., Conn, J., MacIsaac, R.J. and Bonomo, Y., 2020. Alcohol and illicit drug use in people with diabetes. The lancet Diabetes & endocrinology, 8(3), pp.239-248.
Suttithumsatid, W., Shah, M.A., Bibi, S. and Panichayupakaranant, P., 2022. α-Glucosidase inhibitory activity of cannabidiol, tetrahydrocannabinol and standardized cannabinoid extracts from Cannabis sativa. Current Research in Food Science, 5, pp.1091-1097.
Kaminski, N.E. and Kaplan, B.L., 2021. Immunomodulation by cannabinoids: Current uses, mechanisms, and identification of data gaps to be addressed for additional therapeutic application. In Advances in Pharmacology (Vol. 91, pp. 1-59). Academic Press.
Sexton, T.R. and Alshaarawy, O., 2020. Cannabis use prevalence among individuals with diabetes: The National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2005–2018. Drug and alcohol dependence, 212, p.108035. Scholar Publishing
Karakus, K.E., Akturk, H.K., Snell-Bergeon, J.K. and Shah, V.N., 2025. Progression of diabetic retinopathy after initiation of automated insulin delivery system in adults with type 1 diabetes. Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology, p.19322968251318740.
Dhruva, Y., Messias, E. and Lin, P.I., 2025. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and suicide risk in individuals with diabetes and Cannabis use disorder. Preventive Medicine Reports, p.103244.
Ma, L., Hettema, J.M., Cousijn, J., Bjork, J.M., Steinberg, J.L., Keyser-Marcus, L., Woisard, K., Lu, Q., Roberson-Nay, R., Abbate, A. and Moeller, F.G., 2021. Resting-state directional connectivity and anxiety and depression symptoms in adult cannabis users. Biological psychiatry: cognitive neuroscience and neuroimaging, 6(5), pp.545-555.
Merrill, R.M., Ashton-Hwang, K. and Gallegos, L., 2024. Association between cannabis use and physical activity in the United States based on legalization and health status. Journal of Cannabis Research, 6(1), p.39.
Lucas, P., Baron, E.P. and Jikomes, N., 2019. Medical cannabis patterns of use and substitution for opioids & other pharmaceutical drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and illicit substances; results from a cross-sectional survey of authorized patients. Harm reduction journal, 16(1), p.9.
Sachedina, F., Chan, C., Damji, R.S. and de Sanctis, O.J., 2022. Medical cannabis use in Canada and its impact on anxiety and depression: A retrospective study. Psychiatry research, 313, p.114573.
Pathak, S., Jeyabalan, J.B., Liu, K., Cook, P., Lange, B., Kim, S., Nadar, R., Ward, K., Alexander, C.S.W., Kumar, A. and Dua, K., 2024. Assessing effects of Cannabis on various neuropathologies: A systematic review. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, 15(3), p.100911.
Leung, J., Stjepanović, D., Dawson, D. and Hall, W.D., 2021. Do cannabis users reduce their THC dosages when using more potent cannabis products? A review. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, p.630602.
Berger, M., Li, E. and Amminger, G.P., 2020. Treatment of social anxiety disorder and attenuated psychotic symptoms with cannabidiol. BMJ Case Reports CP, 13(10), p.e235307.
Mills, E., 2025. Harmonizing cannabis and environmental policy. International Journal of Drug Policy, 143, p.104923.
Yana, J.L., Lee, C., Eurich, D.T., Dyck, J.R., Hanlon, J.G. and Zongo, A., 2023. Risk of depressive disorders associated with medical cannabis authorization: a propensity score matched cohort study. Psychiatry research, 320, p.115047.
Samanta, D., 2019. Cannabidiol: a review of clinical efficacy and safety in epilepsy. Pediatric neurology, 96, pp.24-29.
Pearlson, G., 2020. Weed science: cannabis controversies and challenges. Academic Press.
Pant, S.P., Joshi, S., Bisht, D. and Bisht, M., 2024. Exploring the historical, botanical, and taxonomical foundations of cannabis: A review. Cannabis and its Derivatives, pp.3-36.
Abdel-Salam, O.M.E., Galal, A.F., Elshebiney, S.A. and Gaafar, A.E.D.M., 2017. International aspects of cannabis use and misuse: Egypt. In Handbook of Cannabis and Related Pathologies (pp. 110-121). Academic Press.
Souleman, A.M., Gaafar, A.E.D.M., Abdel-Salam, O.M. and ElShebiney, S.A., 2017. Determination of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol content of cannabis seizures in Egypt. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, 10(3), pp.311-314. Scholar Publishing
Sabalbal, A., Eid, M., Kobeissy, F.H., Baroud, E. and El Hayek, S., 2025. Cannabis use among Arab students: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 16, p.1511563.
Oraby, D., 2013. Harm reduction approach in Egypt: the insight of injecting drug users. Harm Reduction Journal, 10(1), p.17.
Khedr, E.M., Elserogy, Y. and Ahmed, G.K., 2025. The Impact of Cannabis Use on Cortical Excitability and Inhibitory Mechanisms: A Case-Control Study. Psychiatry Research, p.116617.
Debbarma, G. and Acharya, P.C., 2024. Cannabis and its derivatives: Guide to medical application and regulatory challenges. In Cannabis and its Derivatives (pp. 37-91). Academic Press.
Castle, R.D., Marzolf, J., Morris, M. and Bushell, W.C., 2025. Meta-analysis of medical cannabis outcomes and associations with cancer. Frontiers in Oncology, 15, p.1490621.
Madsen, H.J., Carmichael, H., Reinicke, T., Gleisner, A.L., Del Chiaro, M., Schulick, R.D. and Stewart, C.L., 2023. Cannabis use and post-operative complications in patients undergoing pancreatic resection. HPB, 25(4), pp.431-438.
Kulkarni, K.R., Schafer, M., Berner, L.A., Fiore, V.G., Heflin, M., Hutchison, K., Calhoun, V., Filbey, F., Pandey, G., Schiller, D. and Gu, X., 2023. An interpretable and predictive connectivity-based neural signature for chronic cannabis use. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 8(3), pp.320-330.
Szaflarski, J.P. and Bebin, E.M., 2014. Cannabis, cannabidiol, and epilepsy—from receptors to clinical response. Epilepsy & Behavior, 41, pp.277-282.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 European Journal of Applied Sciences
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
